{"id":685,"date":"2025-07-28T19:22:59","date_gmt":"2025-07-28T16:22:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/egyptologytr.wordpress.com\/?page_id=685"},"modified":"2025-07-28T19:22:59","modified_gmt":"2025-07-28T16:22:59","slug":"ikinci-ara-donem-m-o-1650-1550-the-second-intermediate-period1650-1550-bc","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/egyptologyencyclopedia.org\/de\/ikinci-ara-donem-m-o-1650-1550-the-second-intermediate-period1650-1550-bc\/","title":{"rendered":"\u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem (M.\u00d6. 1650-1550) -The Second Intermediate Period\n(1650-1550 BC)"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Orta Krall\u0131k D\u00f6nemi<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yeni Krall\u0131k D\u00f6nemi<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n b\u00f6l\u00fcnmesi ve \u0130ki \u00dclke\u2019nin par\u00e7alanmas\u0131yla tan\u0131mlanan bir d\u00f6nemdir. Thebes Kral\u0131 Kamose (M\u00d6 1555-1550), bu d\u00f6nemin sonunda, Avaris\u2019te bir b\u00fcy\u00fck adam ve Kush\u2019ta bir di\u011ferinin oturdu\u011funu, bir Asyal\u0131 ve bir Nubial\u0131 ile birle\u015fti\u011fini ve her birinin M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n bir par\u00e7as\u0131na sahip oldu\u011funu belirterek durumu ele\u015ftirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\nKamose

Kamose Lahdi, Kahire M\u0131s\u0131r M\u00fczesi<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Bu d\u00f6nemin ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131, Memphis\u2019in g\u00fcneyinde 32 km uzakl\u0131ktaki Lisht\u2019teki kraliyet merkezinin terk edilmesi ve Thebes\u2019te yeni bir y\u00f6netim merkezinin kurulmas\u0131yla i\u015faretlenmi\u015ftir. D\u00f6nemin sonu ise, Thebes Kral\u0131 Ahmose taraf\u0131ndan Do\u011fu Delta\u2019daki Hyksos ba\u015fkenti Avaris\u2019in fethedilmesiyle gelmi\u015ftir. Ahmose\u2019nin sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n yeniden birle\u015fmesi, 400 y\u0131l boyunca bozulmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu iki olay aras\u0131ndaki s\u00fcre yakla\u015f\u0131k 150 y\u0131ld\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Lisht\u2019te h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren son firavun muhtemelen Merneferra Ay (M\u00d6 1695-1685) idi, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Turin Kanonu\u2019ndaki kral listesine g\u00f6re, hem Yukar\u0131 hem de A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da yaz\u0131tl\u0131 an\u0131tlar b\u0131rakan son 13. Hanedan h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131d\u0131r. Avaris\u2019in fethi ise Ahmose\u2019nin h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n 18. ve 22. y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda, yani M\u00d6 1532-1528 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem (M\u00d6 1650-1550), M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n par\u00e7alanm\u0131\u015f bir yap\u0131ya sahip oldu\u011fu bir d\u00f6nem olarak tan\u0131mlan\u0131r. Thebes Kral\u0131 Kamose, \u00fclkenin \u00fc\u00e7 ayr\u0131 y\u00f6netim merkezi taraf\u0131ndan b\u00f6l\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne dikkat \u00e7ekmi\u015ftir: Avaris\u2019te Hyksoslar, Kush b\u00f6lgesinde Nubial\u0131lar ve Thebes\u2019te M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

D\u00f6nemin ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131, Memphis\u2019in g\u00fcneyinde bulunan Lisht\u2019in terk edilmesi ve kraliyet saray\u0131n\u0131n Thebes\u2019e ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131yla ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu par\u00e7alanma, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n ekonomik ve siyasi olarak zay\u0131flamas\u0131na neden olmu\u015ftur. Hyksoslar, Avaris\u2019te kendi y\u00f6netimlerini kurmu\u015f ve M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n kuzeyini kontrol etmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019in sonu, Thebes Kral\u0131 Ahmose\u2019nin Hyksos ba\u015fkenti Avaris\u2019i fethetmesiyle gelmi\u015ftir (M\u00d6 1532-1528). Bu zafer, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n yeniden birle\u015fmesini sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f ve Yeni Krall\u0131k\u2019\u0131 ba\u015flatm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r, bu birle\u015fme 400 y\u0131l boyunca korunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

M\u00d6 1695-1685 y\u0131llar\u0131nda h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren Merneferra Ay, Lisht\u2019te h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren son firavun olabilir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc hem Yukar\u0131 hem de A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da an\u0131tlar b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ahmose\u2019nin zaferi, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n yeniden g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir merkezi y\u00f6netim kurmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f ve Hyksoslar\u2019\u0131n M\u0131s\u0131r \u00fczerindeki kontrol\u00fcn\u00fc sona erdirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Arkeolojik kaynaklar, \u00f6zellikle eksik kay\u0131tlar nedeniyle baz\u0131 zorluklar i\u00e7ermektedir. Bu eksiklikler, k\u00f6t\u00fc korunma ko\u015fullar\u0131 veya d\u00fczensiz kaz\u0131lar nedeniyle ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r. \u00d6zellikle, Orta M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019daki Maiyana ile Deir Rifa aras\u0131ndaki b\u00f6lgede ve Nil Deltas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n merkezi ile bat\u0131s\u0131nda bu d\u00f6neme ait hi\u00e7bir kaz\u0131 yap\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 Nubia\u2019daki ikinci \u015felale b\u00f6lgesinde bulunan kerpi\u00e7 kaleler, M\u0131s\u0131r ve Kush aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkilerin tarihini anlatmaktad\u0131r. Ancak, 1960\u2019larda UNESCO taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131lan k\u0131smi kaz\u0131lar sonras\u0131nda, bu kaleler Nas\u0131r G\u00f6l\u00fc\u2019n\u00fcn sular\u0131 alt\u0131nda kaybolmu\u015ftur. Bu nedenle, elimizde kalan bilgiler b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde par\u00e7al\u0131 ve d\u00fczensizdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

B\u00f6lgesel bir yakla\u015f\u0131m benimsemek, M\u0131s\u0131r tarihindeki \u00f6nemli bir temay\u0131 vurgulamaktad\u0131r: Yukar\u0131 ve A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r aras\u0131ndaki rekabet. Bu rekabet, \u00f6zellikle \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019in sonunda Thebes ve Avaris aras\u0131ndaki sava\u015fta en u\u00e7 noktaya ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Avaris B\u00f6lgesi-The Territory of Avaris<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019in merkezinde yer alan en \u00f6nemli soru, Hyksoslar\u0131n do\u011fas\u0131d\u0131r. \u00c7o\u011fu tarihsel kaynak, M\u0131s\u0131r taraf\u0131ndan yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve Hyksoslar taraf\u0131ndan yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f do\u011frudan bir belge bulunmamaktad\u0131r. Kamose metinlerine Hyksoslar taraf\u0131ndan yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k yoktur. Ancak, onlar\u0131n ba\u015fkenti olan Avaris\u2019te (Tell el-Dab\u2019a) yap\u0131lan sistematik kaz\u0131lar sayesinde, saraylar\u0131n\u0131n, tap\u0131naklar\u0131n\u0131n, evlerinin ve mezarlar\u0131n\u0131n nas\u0131l g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc biliyoruz. Bu bulgular, Hyksos k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn zaman i\u00e7inde nas\u0131l geli\u015fti\u011fini anlamam\u0131za yard\u0131mc\u0131 olmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hyksoslar, tek bir homojen grup de\u011fildi ve basit bir fenomen olarak de\u011ferlendirilemezler. Avaris\u2019teki arkeolojik bulgular, onlar\u0131n farkl\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrel unsurlar\u0131 bir araya getirdi\u011fini ve M\u0131s\u0131r ile Levant aras\u0131ndaki etkile\u015fimde \u00f6nemli bir rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Aamu, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da Avaris halk\u0131n\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lardan ay\u0131rmak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f bir terimdi. Bu terim, \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019den \u00e7ok \u00f6nce ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f ve uzun s\u00fcre kullan\u0131lmaya devam etmi\u015ftir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, II. Ramses, Kade\u015f Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019ndaki rakiplerini tan\u0131mlarken bu terimi kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Genel anlamda, Aamu terimi Suriye-Filistin b\u00f6lgesinin sakinlerini ifade etmek i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. M\u0131s\u0131rbilimciler, Aamu\u2019yu genellikle “Asyal\u0131lar” (Bat\u0131 Asya\u2019n\u0131n sakinleri) olarak \u00e7evirmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hyksos terimi ise, Yunanca arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019daki “hekau khasut” ifadesinden t\u00fcremi\u015ftir, bu ifade “yabanc\u0131 (kelimenin tam anlam\u0131yla da\u011fl\u0131k) \u00fclkelerin h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131” anlam\u0131na gelmektedir. Bu terim yaln\u0131zca Asyal\u0131 y\u00f6neticilere uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kendi ba\u015f\u0131na a\u015fa\u011f\u0131lay\u0131c\u0131 bir anlam ta\u015f\u0131mamaktad\u0131r, ancak M\u0131s\u0131r firavununun stat\u00fcs\u00fcnden daha d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck bir konumu ifade etmektedir. Hem M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar hem de Hyksos krallar\u0131 bu terimi kendileri i\u00e7in kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019daki Asyal\u0131lar\u0131n \u00f6zel ve kraliyet isimleri, etimolojileri belirlenebildi\u011finde, Bat\u0131 Sami dillerinden t\u00fcremektedir. Daha \u00f6nce baz\u0131 isimlerin Hurri veya Hitit k\u00f6kenli oldu\u011fu \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015fse de, bu iddialar do\u011frulanmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Orta Krall\u0131k d\u00f6neminde Asyal\u0131lara yap\u0131lan referanslar olduk\u00e7a fazlad\u0131r; \u00e7e\u015fitli mesleklerde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015flar, bazen M\u0131s\u0131r isimlerini benimsemi\u015fler ancak yine de “Asyal\u0131” (Aamu) olarak tan\u0131mlanmaya devam etmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu g\u00f6\u00e7menler ekonomik nedenlerle M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a gelmi\u015f olabilir, ancak 12. Hanedan h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 Amenemhat II\u2019nin bir yaz\u0131t\u0131, L\u00fcbnan k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131na yap\u0131lan bir deniz seferini ve bu sefer sonucunda 1.554 Asyal\u0131n\u0131n ganimet olarak ele ge\u00e7irildi\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a belirtmektedir. Bu t\u00fcr askeri seferler, Tell el-Habua\u2019daki arkeolojik kan\u0131tlarla \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015fmektedir, bu b\u00f6lgedeki kal\u0131nt\u0131lar, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n do\u011fu s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n\u0131n g\u00fcney s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131 kadar g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir \u015fekilde tahkim edildi\u011fini g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Habua, Tell el-Dab\u2019a\u2019n\u0131n do\u011fusunda yer alan b\u00fcy\u00fck bir arkeolojik alan olup, Orta Krall\u0131k\u2019tan itibaren kullan\u0131lmaya ba\u015flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kaz\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 y\u00fcr\u00fcten Mohammed Maksoud, \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem yerle\u015fim katmanlar\u0131n\u0131n alt\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck bir yap\u0131n\u0131n izlerini bulmu\u015ftur, bu yap\u0131n\u0131n kal\u0131n duvarlar\u0131 g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, muhtemelen bir kale oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. Nubia\u2019daki ikinci \u015felale b\u00f6lgesindeki kalelerle benzerlik g\u00f6steren bu yap\u0131, muhtemelen devriyelerin \u00e7evredeki \u00e7\u00f6l\u00fc kontrol etti\u011fi ve ba\u015fkente g\u00f6nderilen raporlarla M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a giri\u015f \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015flar\u0131n kay\u0131t alt\u0131na al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir g\u00fcvenlik noktas\u0131 olarak i\u015flev g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Dab\u2019a\u2019da yap\u0131lan arkeolojik \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar, 13. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131nda burada M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131la\u015fm\u0131\u015f bir Asyal\u0131 toplulu\u011fun ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir. Ancak, Orta Krall\u0131k d\u00f6neminde M\u0131s\u0131r i\u00e7inde farkl\u0131 bir ya\u015fam tarz\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcren Asyal\u0131lara dair en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc arkeolojik kan\u0131t \u015fu ana kadar yaln\u0131zca buradan elde edilmi\u015ftir. \u00c7a\u011fda\u015f metinlerde “Asyal\u0131 i\u015f\u00e7i kamplar\u0131”na dair referanslar bulunmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Dab\u2019a\u2019daki en eski yerle\u015fimin, Birinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019de M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n do\u011fu s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n\u0131 korumak i\u00e7in in\u015fa edilmi\u015f bir savunma sisteminin par\u00e7as\u0131 oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. 12. ve 13. Hanedanlar\u0131n sonlar\u0131na do\u011fru b\u00f6lge b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde geni\u015flemi\u015f ve Asyal\u0131 n\u00fcfusun yo\u011fun oldu\u011fu bir yerle\u015fim ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu toplulu\u011fun M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a \u00f6zg\u00fc olmayan yap\u0131s\u0131, evlerin d\u00fczeninden (muhtemelen Suriye modeline g\u00f6re in\u015fa edilmi\u015f) ve mezarlar\u0131n yerle\u015fim alanlar\u0131na entegre edilmesinden anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

K\u00fclt\u00fcrel farkl\u0131l\u0131klar, \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7ilik ve silah t\u00fcrleriyle belirlenmi\u015ftir, ancak mezarlar\u0131n yap\u0131s\u0131, M\u0131s\u0131r ve Filistin geleneklerinin bir kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131tmaktad\u0131r. Bir mezar \u015fapelinde bulunan bir h\u0131rs\u0131z \u00e7ukurundan, bir atma sopas\u0131 tutan oturmu\u015f bir adam\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck boyutlu kire\u00e7ta\u015f\u0131 heykelinin par\u00e7alar\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Sanatsal stil ve k\u0131yafetler M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 de\u011fildir, ancak heykelin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, bu ki\u015finin b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00f6neme sahip oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir. Bu heykelin en iyi kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131, Orta Krall\u0131k d\u00f6neminde Beni Hasan\u2019daki bir mezarda bulunan, Asyal\u0131 bir kad\u0131n ve bebe\u011fini tasvir eden k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir ah\u015fap fig\u00fcrd\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Orta Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc, Tell el-Dab\u2019a\u2019daki d\/i katman\u0131nda daha belirgin hale gelmi\u015ftir. Bu d\u00f6neme ait mezarlarda \u00e7iftler halinde g\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f e\u015fekler bulunmu\u015ftur. Di\u011fer buluntular aras\u0131nda Kuzey Suriye tarz\u0131nda bir silindir m\u00fch\u00fcr bask\u0131s\u0131, Minos Kamares \u00e7\u00f6mlek par\u00e7alar\u0131 ve iki av k\u00f6pe\u011fini tasvir eden alt\u0131n bir pektoral yer almaktad\u0131r, bu pektoralin de Minos k\u00f6kenli oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu nesneler, Orta Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019na ait ithal \u00e7\u00f6mlekler ve M\u0131s\u0131r taklitleriyle birlikte, yerle\u015fimin karma\u015f\u0131k karakterini do\u011frulamaktad\u0131r. Bu Asyal\u0131lar\u0131n tek bir k\u00f6kene sahip olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 kesin olarak belirlenememektedir, ancak k\u00fclt\u00fcrleri b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde M\u0131s\u0131r etkisiyle de\u011fi\u015fime u\u011fram\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00c7\u00f6mleklerin \u00e7o\u011fu M\u0131s\u0131r k\u00f6kenliydi, ancak d\/i katman\u0131nda bu oran %80\u2019den %60\u2019a d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Y\u00f6netim ise, scarab m\u00fch\u00fcrlerdeki unvanlara bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, M\u0131s\u0131r modeliyle y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yabanc\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrel unsurlar\u0131n benzerleri G\u00fcney Filistin\u2019deki Tell el-Ajjul, Suriye\u2019deki Ebla ve modern L\u00fcbnan\u2019daki Byblos gibi b\u00f6lgelerde bulunmu\u015ftur. Patrick McGovern\u2019\u0131n Tell el-Dab\u2019a\u2019daki M\u0131s\u0131r d\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6mlekler \u00fczerine yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rma, bunlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011funun G\u00fcney Filistin \u015fehirlerinden geldi\u011fini \u00f6ne s\u00fcrmektedir. Tell el-Dab\u2019a\u2019daki ge\u00e7 Orta Krall\u0131k yerle\u015fiminin zenginli\u011fi, Levant k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131 boyunca deniz ticareti, kuzey Sina \u00fczerinden Filistin\u2019e uzanan kervan yolu ve belki de turkuaz madenlerine yap\u0131lan seferlerle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Bu nedenle, buradaki halk\u0131n kendine \u00f6zg\u00fc k\u00fclt\u00fcrel yap\u0131s\u0131 \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 de\u011fildir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Dab\u2019a\u2019daki k\u00fclt\u00fcr statik de\u011fil, h\u0131zla yeni \u00f6zellikler geli\u015ftirip eski gelenekleri terk etmi\u015ftir. Bu durum, mimari, mezar adetleri, \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7ilik, metal i\u015f\u00e7ili\u011fi ve di\u011fer eserler a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan her katman\u0131n karakterizasyonunu netle\u015ftirmektedir, ancak bu k\u00fclt\u00fcrel kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131n neden ve nas\u0131l ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fi sorusunu tam olarak yan\u0131tlamamaktad\u0131r. Bir hipoteze g\u00f6re, M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 yerle\u015fik n\u00fcfus zaman zaman yeni g\u00f6\u00e7men gruplar\u0131 alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r, \u00f6nce L\u00fcbnan ve Suriye b\u00f6lgesinden, ard\u0131ndan Filistin ve K\u0131br\u0131s\u2019tan gelen topluluklar yerle\u015fmi\u015ftir. Elit kesim, yerel kad\u0131nlarla evlenmi\u015f olabilir, bu teori, insan kal\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131 \u00fczerine yap\u0131lan \u00f6n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalarla desteklenmektedir, ancak kemiklerin korunma durumu zay\u0131ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Dab\u2019a\u2019da, Orta Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 II A-C d\u00f6nemine ait y\u00fczlerce eser bulunmu\u015ftur, bu eserler Suriye-Filistin b\u00f6lgesine \u00f6zg\u00fcd\u00fcr. Bu materyaller dokuz katmanda (H-D\/2) yer almaktad\u0131r, ve Avusturyal\u0131 arkeolog Manfred Bietak taraf\u0131ndan Amenemhat IV (M\u00d6 1786-1777) ve Ahmose (M\u00d6 1550-1525) d\u00f6nemleriyle ili\u015fkilendirilmi\u015ftir. Bietak, bu d\u00f6nemi dokuz b\u00f6l\u00fcme ay\u0131rarak her katmana yakla\u015f\u0131k otuz y\u0131l tahsis etmi\u015f ve b\u00f6ylece g\u00f6receli s\u0131ralamas\u0131 i\u00e7in mutlak tarih \u00e7er\u00e7evesi olu\u015fturmu\u015ftur. Ancak, bu tarihler Tell el-Dab\u2019a\u2019daki benzer eserlerin bulundu\u011fu Suriye-Filistin b\u00f6lgesindeki di\u011fer alanlara uyguland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, mevcut kronolojiyle \u00e7eli\u015fkiler ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu tart\u0131\u015fmalar \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde, yaln\u0131zca Tell el-Dab\u2019a\u2019daki katmanlar\u0131n tarihlendirilmesi de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda t\u00fcm Do\u011fu Akdeniz b\u00f6lgesinde Orta Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n tarihlendirilme y\u00f6ntemleri radikal bir revizyon gerektirebilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

177 sayfa ikinci paragraf <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019n\u0131n \u0130lk Geni\u015flemesi<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019n\u0131n ilk geni\u015fleme s\u00fcreci, bir salg\u0131n hastal\u0131k nedeniyle ge\u00e7ici olarak durdurulmu\u015ftur<\/strong>. Alan boyunca, herhangi bir t\u00f6ren izine rastlanmaks\u0131z\u0131n \u00e7ok say\u0131da bedenin yerle\u015ftirildi\u011fi b\u00fcy\u00fck ortak mezarlar<\/strong> bulunmu\u015ftur\u2014bu buluntular Manfred Bietak taraf\u0131ndan belgelenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sonras\u0131nda, F tabakas\u0131ndan itibaren<\/strong>, hem yerle\u015fim<\/strong> hem de mezarl\u0131k d\u00fczenleri<\/strong>, \u00f6nceki d\u00f6neme k\u0131yasla daha az e\u015fitlik\u00e7i bir toplumu<\/strong> i\u015faret etmektedir. B\u00fcy\u00fck evlerin etraf\u0131na yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck yap\u0131lar<\/strong>, yerle\u015fimin merkezindeki daha karma\u015f\u0131k mimar\u00ee formlar<\/strong>, ve efendilerin mezarlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcne g\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f hizmetk\u00e2rlar<\/strong>, burada zengin bir elit grubun sosyal bask\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131na i\u015faret eder<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Avaris ile \u00d6zde\u015fle\u015fme ve Nehesy’nin \u0130zleri<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Bu noktada, \u015fehrin tarihi ba\u011flam\u0131 itibar\u0131yla, metinlerde belgelenmi\u015f olan Hyksos ba\u015fkenti Avaris ile \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015fmesi belirgin hale gelir<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130ki adet kire\u00e7ta\u015f\u0131 kap\u0131 s\u00f6vesi<\/strong>, \u201ciki \u00fclkenin efendisi olan iyi tanr\u0131, Ra\u2019n\u0131n kendi bedeninden o\u011flu Nehesy<\/strong>\u201d \u015feklinde tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015f bir ki\u015fiyi belirtmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Habua, Tanis ve Tell el-Muqdam\u2019dan gelen yaz\u0131tl\u0131 par\u00e7alarda bu ki\u015fiye dair ba\u015fka unvanlar ve s\u0131fatlar da yer almaktad\u0131r: \u201cSeth\u2019in sevgilisi, Avaris\u2019in efendisi, kral\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck o\u011flu<\/strong>\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Buradaki \u201ckral\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck o\u011flu\u201d unvan\u0131, y\u00fcksek asker\u00ee r\u00fctbeyi ima eder<\/strong>\u2014ancak literal anlamda kral\u0131n biyolojik o\u011flu olmak zorunda de\u011fildir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tanr\u0131 Seth\u2019e yap\u0131lan g\u00f6nderme<\/strong>, onun k\u00fclt\u00fcn\u00fcn bu d\u00f6nemde zaten yerle\u015fmi\u015f oldu\u011funu<\/strong> ve Avaris\u2019in yerel tanr\u0131s\u0131 haline geldi\u011fini<\/strong> g\u00f6sterir\u2014t\u0131pk\u0131 Amun\u2019un Thebes\u2019in koruyucu tanr\u0131s\u0131 olmas\u0131<\/strong> gibi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu Seth k\u00fclt\u00fc muhtemelen, Heliopolis\u2019te \u00f6nceden var olan bir inan\u00e7 ile, Kuzey Suriye\u2019den Asyal\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan getirilen f\u0131rt\u0131na tanr\u0131s\u0131 Baal Zephon\u2019un k\u00fclt\u00fcn\u00fcn birle\u015fiminden<\/strong> evrilmi\u015f olabilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nehesy ve Avaris\u2019in B\u00f6lgesel Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Nehesy, genellikle Manetho\u2019ya g\u00f6re bat\u0131 deltadaki ba\u015fkenti Xois olan 14. Hanedan i\u00e7inde listelenmi\u015ftir. Nehesy, Avaris\u2019te k\u0131sa s\u00fcreli\u011fine kraliyet stat\u00fcs\u00fc \u00fcstlenmi\u015f y\u00fcksek r\u00fctbeli bir memurdu (saltanat y\u0131l\u0131 bilinmiyor). B\u00fcy\u00fck ihtimalle M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 ya da belki Nubial\u0131yd\u0131 (\u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u201cNehesy\u201d kelimesi Nubial\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelir); yaz\u0131tlar\u0131nda aksini belirten hi\u00e7bir \u015fey yoktur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Muhtemelen ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta Itjtawy kentinde h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren krala hizmet ediyordu\u2014bu \u015fehir M.\u00d6. 1685\u2019ten sonra terk edilmi\u015ftir. Ancak M.\u00d6. yakla\u015f\u0131k 1725 tarihli Sobekhotep IV\u2019ten sonra M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n birli\u011fi bozulmu\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir; bu noktada, zengin ve g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir \u015fehir olan Avaris\u2019in ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z bir krall\u0131\u011fa d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmesi muhtemel bir geli\u015fmeydi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nehesy\u2019nin otoritesi ne kadar geni\u015fti? Ad\u0131n\u0131n ge\u00e7ti\u011fi alanlara bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Do\u011fu Deltada Tell el-Muqdam\u2019dan Tell el-Habua\u2019ya kadar olan bir b\u00f6lgeyi kapsad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor; fakat eski an\u0131tlar\u0131n s\u0131k\u00e7a gasp edilmesi ve ta\u015f oca\u011f\u0131 olarak kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 bu tabloyu kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131yor. Nehesy\u2019nin ad\u0131 yaln\u0131zca Tell el-Habua ve Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da bizzat bulundu\u011fu yerlerde tespit edildi\u011finden, krall\u0131\u011f\u0131 asl\u0131nda \u00e7ok daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir alana s\u0131k\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015f olabilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki bir \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem mezar\u0131, Avaris\u2019te h\u00e2l\u00e2 M\u0131s\u0131r b\u00fcrokrasisinin i\u015fledi\u011fini g\u00f6stermektedir. Mezar sahibi, parma\u011f\u0131ndaki scarab sayesinde \u201cMaliye Yard\u0131mc\u0131s\u0131 Aamu (\u2018Asyatik\u2019)\u201d olarak tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Mezar\u0131 son derece zengindir, ancak baz\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r d\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u00f6zellikler bar\u0131nd\u0131r\u0131r: bedeni b\u00fck\u00fck pozisyonda g\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr (M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131larda yayg\u0131n olan d\u00fcz uzanm\u0131\u015f \u015feklin aksine); silah ve \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlekler Suriye-Filistin k\u00f6kenlidir; mezar\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcne be\u015f ya da alt\u0131 e\u015fek g\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. B\u00f6ylesine y\u00fcksek bir memur genellikle kral\u0131na yak\u0131n bir yerde g\u00f6m\u00fcl\u00fcrd\u00fc ve \u00f6mr\u00fcn\u00fc kral\u0131n bulundu\u011fu saray merkezinde ge\u00e7irirdi\u2014bu \u00f6rnekte Avaris.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Danimarkal\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131rbilimci K. S. B. Ryholt\u2019un Turin Kanonu yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131rmas\u0131 kabul edilirse, Nehesy\u2019nin dahil oldu\u011fu h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar grubunda 32 isim, 17 kay\u0131p isim ve iki bo\u015fluk vard\u0131r: biri Nehesy\u2019den \u00f6nceki be\u015f ki\u015fiyi kapsar; di\u011feri ise bilinmeyen uzunlukta bir aral\u0131kt\u0131r ve Turin Kanonu\u2019nun kopyaland\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6nceki yazmada yer ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 belirtilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem’de Krallar, Belgeler ve Avaris’in Par\u00e7alanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Ad\u0131 ge\u00e7en krallardan yaln\u0131zca be\u015fi hari\u00e7 hepsi i\u00e7in saltanat s\u00fcresi ya belirtilmemi\u015ftir ya da bir y\u0131ldan az olarak kaydedilmi\u015ftir. Nehesy d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda sadece \u00fc\u00e7 kral ba\u015fka yerlerde ge\u00e7mektedir: Nebsenra bir kavanoz \u00fczerinde, Sekheperenra bir scarab (m\u00fch\u00fcr b\u00f6ce\u011fi fig\u00fcr\u00fc) \u00fczerinde ve Merdjedefra ise g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze ula\u015fm\u0131\u015f bir stel \u00fczerinde tasvir edilmi\u015ftir. Bu stelin bulundu\u011fu yer bilinmemekle birlikte, Do\u011fu Deltada, Tell el-Yahudiya\u2019n\u0131n yakla\u015f\u0131k 30 km kuzeyindeki Saft el-Hinna olabilece\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. Kral, do\u011funun efendisi Soped\u2019e adak sunarken betimlenmi\u015ftir\u2014Soped, alan\u0131 K\u0131z\u0131ldeniz\u2019e giden \u00e7\u00f6l yollar\u0131 ve Sina’daki turkuaz madenleri olan bir tanr\u0131d\u0131r. Onun k\u00fclt merkezi, 22. Hanedan d\u00f6neminde Saft el-Hinna olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Merdjedefra\u2019ya ait stel, sadece k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir kral\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 do\u011frulamakla kalmaz; ayn\u0131 zamanda 14. Hanedan\u2019a ait isimlerin uydurma olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kan\u0131tlar, her ne kadar bu krallar\u0131n tek bir merkezden ard\u0131\u015f\u0131k bi\u00e7imde h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrd\u00fckleri pek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn g\u00f6r\u00fcnmese de.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nehesy\u2019nin yaz\u0131t\u0131, M\u0131s\u0131r krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n par\u00e7alanmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f d\u00f6neme ait ilk kan\u0131t\u0131d\u0131r. Bietak\u2019a g\u00f6re Nehesy, Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da F tabakas\u0131na (ya da b\/3 katman\u0131na) yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir ve bu, ge\u00e7 13. Hanedan\u2019a kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k gelir. Bu d\u00f6nemden sonra, Avaris\u2019in fethine kadar hi\u00e7bir h\u00fck\u00fcmdar t\u00fcm M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 denetim alt\u0131na alamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu d\u00f6neme ait 105\u2019in \u00fczerinde kral ismi korunmu\u015ftur ve bunlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu Turin Papir\u00fcs\u00fc\u2019nde ge\u00e7mektedir. Bu durum, saltanat s\u00fcresi ne kadar k\u0131sa olursa olsun ve h\u00fck\u00fcm alan\u0131 ne kadar b\u00f6lgesel olursa olsun, t\u00fcm bu krallar\u0131n isimlerinin Memphis\u2019te kay\u0131t alt\u0131na al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ryholt\u2019un hasar g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f papir\u00fcs \u00fczerinde yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 titiz yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131rma\u2014lif \u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc e\u015fle\u015ftirme ve metin analizi kullanarak\u2014daha tutarl\u0131 bir kay\u0131t sunmu\u015ftur. Bu krall\u0131k isimleri art\u0131k Manetho\u2019ya g\u00f6re 14\u201317. Hanedanlara kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k gelen d\u00f6rt gruba ayr\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. 14. ve 15. Hanedanlar Do\u011fu Deltaya, ba\u015fkentleri Avaris olacak \u015fekilde yerle\u015fmi\u015ftir (15. Hanedan, Memphis\u2019in g\u00fcneyindeki M\u0131s\u0131r topraklar\u0131n\u0131n bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc de kontrol etmi\u015ftir). 16. ve 17. Hanedanlar ise Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019daki Thebes merkezliydi. Papir\u00fcs\u00fcn par\u00e7a par\u00e7a kalmas\u0131, Ryholt\u2019un fiziksel rekonstr\u00fcksiyonu kabul edilse bile birden fazla yoruma olanak tan\u0131maktad\u0131r. Ryholt\u2019un en tart\u0131\u015fmal\u0131 ve geni\u015f etkili fikirlerinden biri, Thebes merkezli erken krallar\u0131 Manetho\u2019nun 16. Hanedan\u0131\u2019na dahil etmesidir. Kaynaklar\u0131 derleyen yazarlar aras\u0131nda en g\u00fcveniliri olan Africanus, 16. Hanedan\u2019\u0131 \u201c\u00c7oban (Hyksos) Krallar\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131rken, Eusebius onlar\u0131 Thebesli olarak tan\u0131mlar. Burada Ryholt\u2019un yorumu benimsenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Baz\u0131 kral isimleri an\u0131tlarda ge\u00e7se de Turin Papir\u00fcs\u00fc\u2019nde yer almamaktad\u0131r (muhtemelen eksik kalan bir b\u00f6l\u00fcmde listelenmi\u015flerdir). Bu h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlardan biri de, be\u015f isminin \u00fc\u00e7\u00fc korunmu\u015f olan tam M\u0131s\u0131r hiyerar\u015fisine sahip Sekerher\u2019dir. Kendini \u201cheka khasut\u201d (\u2018yabanc\u0131 \u00fclkelerin h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131\u2019) olarak tan\u0131mlar; yaz\u0131t\u0131, Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da erken 18. Hanedan d\u00f6nemine ait bir binada yeniden kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir kap\u0131 s\u00f6vesi \u00fczerinde korunmu\u015ftur. Bietak, onu Josephus\u2019un Manetho tarihine dayand\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 anlat\u0131da Memphis\u2019i fetheden Salitis ile \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015ftirir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

M\u00fch\u00fcrler, Krall\u0131k Simgeleri ve Hyksos D\u00f6nemi’nin Zirvesi<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Bununla birlikte, yaln\u0131zca scarab (m\u00fch\u00fcr b\u00f6ce\u011fi fig\u00fcr\u00fc) \u00fczerinde ge\u00e7en yakla\u015f\u0131k on be\u015f kraliyet ismini i\u00e7eren b\u00fcy\u00fck bir grup da mevcuttur. Bu \u00f6zel isimler bazen M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131, bazen Bat\u0131 Sami k\u00f6kenlidir ve genellikle \u201ciyi tanr\u0131\u201d, \u201cRa\u2019n\u0131n o\u011flu\u201d ve \u201cyabanc\u0131 \u00fclkelerin h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131\u201d gibi unvanlarla ba\u015flar. Bu ilk iki unvan, y\u00fczlerce y\u0131l boyunca M\u0131s\u0131r krallar\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan ta\u015f\u0131nm\u0131\u015f olup kral stat\u00fcs\u00fcne dair en genel ifadelerdir. Ancak M\u0131s\u0131r kaynaklar\u0131nda kullan\u0131lan \u201cnesu\u201d (kral) terimi bu y\u00f6neticileri tan\u0131mlamak i\u00e7in hi\u00e7bir zaman kullan\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bi\u00e7imsel a\u00e7\u0131dan bu scarablar, hem M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da hem de Filistin\u2019de \u00fcretilip kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir m\u00fch\u00fcr t\u00fcr\u00fc grubuna aittir. Arkeolojik ba\u011flamlar\u0131, bunlar\u0131n 13. Hanedan\u2019dan sonraki d\u00f6neme ait oldu\u011funu g\u00f6sterir ve stilleri 14. ve 15. Hanedan krallar\u0131n\u0131n isimlerini ta\u015f\u0131yan scarablarla ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Bu, yerel yetkililerin belirli bir zaman ve yerde kendilerine kraliyet unvanlar\u0131 yak\u0131\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 daha fazla \u00f6rnek olabilece\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmektedir; zira o d\u00f6nemde normalde s\u0131k\u0131 bi\u00e7imde korunan protokoller art\u0131k uygulanamaz h\u00e2le gelmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ba\u015fka kaynaklardan do\u011frulama olmadan, bu t\u00fcr \u201ckrallar\u0131n\u201d otoritesinin kapsam\u0131n\u0131 scarablar\u0131n da\u011f\u0131l\u0131m\u0131na bakarak de\u011ferlendirmek ya da tasar\u0131m de\u011fi\u015fimlerini kronolojik s\u0131raya koymak g\u00fcvenli de\u011fildir. Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki buluntular, bug\u00fcne kadar bu isimlerin konumland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na yaln\u0131zca dolayl\u0131 olarak yard\u0131mc\u0131 olmu\u015ftur. Orta Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 IIB Filistin modeli ve Sekerher\u2019in isimlerinin do\u011frudan yorumlanmas\u0131na dayanarak onun k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck krallar\u0131n hara\u00e7 \u00f6dedi\u011fi \u00fcst\u00fcn h\u00fck\u00fcmdar oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. E\u011fer \u00f6yleyse, \u201cyabanc\u0131 \u00fclkelerin h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131\u201d unvan\u0131n\u0131n hem tan\u0131nmayan ki\u015filer i\u00e7in hem de Avaris y\u00f6neticilerinin yaz\u0131tlar\u0131nda kullan\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klayabilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bietak, Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki son Hyksos evresini (b\/1\u2013a\/2; E\/2\u2013D\/2; VI\u2013V tabakalar\u0131) Manetho\u2019nun 15. Hanedan\u0131 ile ili\u015fkilendirmektedir ve Turin Kanonu\u2019ndan al\u0131nan bir par\u00e7a, \u201cyabanc\u0131 \u00fclkelerin 6 h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131n\u0131n 108 y\u0131l boyunca h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc\u201d kaydeder. Bu isimlerden yaln\u0131zca sonuncusu, Khamudi, okunabilmektedir. Sekerher, Apepi ve Khyan\u2019\u0131n o\u011flu Yanassi Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019dan belgelenmi\u015ftir; bunlardan ilk ve sonuncusu Manetho\u2019nun tarih anlat\u0131m\u0131nda yer alan Salitis ve Iannas ile \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015ftirilebilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

T\u00fcm yaz\u0131l\u0131 ve arkeolojik kan\u0131tlar, bu y\u00f6neticilerin otoritesinin seleflerine g\u00f6re \u00e7ok daha b\u00fcy\u00fck oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir. Bunlardan ikisinin baba-o\u011ful ard\u0131ll\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve Apepi\u2019nin en az k\u0131rk y\u0131l s\u00fcren istisnai saltanat\u0131, \u00f6rne\u011fin 12. Hanedan gibi ger\u00e7ek bir hanedan\u0131n art\u0131k Avaris\u2019ten h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc kan\u0131tlar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u015eehir, en geni\u015f d\u00f6neminde yakla\u015f\u0131k 4 km\u00b2\u2019lik bir alan\u0131 kapl\u0131yordu; bu da 13. Hanedan d\u00f6nemindekinin iki kat\u0131 ve Filistin\u2019deki en b\u00fcy\u00fck Orta Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 IIA-C yerle\u015fimi olan Hazor\u2019un \u00fc\u00e7 kat\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde oldu\u011fu anlam\u0131na gelir. En ge\u00e7 Hyksos tabakas\u0131 olan D\/2\u2019de, \u015fehrin bat\u0131 ucunda, nehre h\u00e2kim konumda yer alan ve daha \u00f6nce yerle\u015filmemi\u015f bir alana bir kale in\u015fa edilmi\u015ftir; yakla\u015f\u0131k 200 metre g\u00fcneydo\u011fusunda ise kara yolunu koruyan bir g\u00f6zetleme kulesi bulunur. Bu yap\u0131lar\u0131n \u00e7evresine, 6,2 metre geni\u015fli\u011finde ve daha sonra 8,5 metreye \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, aral\u0131klarla desteklenmi\u015f devasa bir \u00e7evre duvar\u0131 \u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bu tahkimatlar, ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta b\u00fcy\u00fck bir saray kompleksine ait olan geni\u015f bah\u00e7elerin \u00fczerine in\u015fa edilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hyksos d\u00f6neminin zirvesi, iki Thebes kral\u0131n\u0131n ona kar\u015f\u0131 sefer d\u00fczenlemesine ra\u011fmen, Aauserra Apepi\u2019nin (yakla\u015f\u0131k M.\u00d6. 1555) saltanat\u0131d\u0131r. Bu d\u00f6nemde M\u0131s\u0131r yaz\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcnde bilin\u00e7li bir canlanman\u0131n i\u015faretleri de g\u00f6zlemlenmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Apepi\u2019nin K\u00fclt\u00fcrel Miras\u0131, Hyksos D\u00f6nemi ve Avaris\u2019in B\u00f6lgesel Etkisi<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

M\u0131s\u0131r tarz\u0131 y\u00f6netimi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebilmek i\u00e7in gerekli karma\u015f\u0131k b\u00fcrokrasiyi olu\u015fturmak ve kontrol alt\u0131nda tutmak amac\u0131yla gelenekler vazge\u00e7ilmezdi. Yaz\u0131c\u0131 Atu\u2019ya ait bir palet \u00fczerinde, Aauserra (Apepi) \u201cRa\u2019n\u0131n yaz\u0131c\u0131s\u0131, bizzat Thoth taraf\u0131ndan e\u011fitilmi\u015f… yaz\u0131lar\u0131n zor b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerini sadakatle okudu\u011fu g\u00fcn, yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 say\u0131s\u0131z ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 i\u015flerle, Nil gibi akan\u201d \u015feklinde tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Saltanat\u0131n\u0131n otuz \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc y\u0131l\u0131nda, Rhind Matematik Papir\u00fcs\u00fc\u2019n\u00fcn kopyaland\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu g\u00f6rev ancak zanaat\u0131n\u0131n en y\u00fcksek d\u00fczeyinde e\u011fitilmi\u015f ve Memphis\u2019teki Ptah Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131 gibi \u00f6zel matematiksel ar\u015fivlere eri\u015fimi olan bir yaz\u0131c\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131labilirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yeni Krall\u0131k sonras\u0131 d\u00f6neme ait Memphis\u2019te bulunan bir stel, 11. Hanedan\u2019a kadar uzanan bir rahip soyunu belgelerken, Ahmose\u2019den \u00f6nceki d\u00f6neme ait Apepi ve Sharek isimlerini de i\u00e7erir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da Apepi ve k\u0131z karde\u015fi Tany\u2019yi anmak i\u00e7in yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir kutsal alan\u0131n par\u00e7alar\u0131 bulunmu\u015ftur. Bu alan iki Asyal\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan adanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve onlar\u0131n yaz\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131 Bat\u0131 Semitik isimlerini M\u0131s\u0131r hiyeroglif yaz\u0131s\u0131na uyarlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ayr\u0131ca, Apepi\u2019nin k\u0131z\u0131 Herit ad\u0131na ince hiyerogliflerle yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir tabak, 18. Hanedan h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 Amenhotep I\u2019in (M\u00d6 1525\u20131504) mezar\u0131nda bulunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hyksoslar k\u00fclt\u00fcrel bir olgu olarak \u201c\u00f6zg\u00fcn bi\u00e7imde M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131\u201d \u015feklinde tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Apepi d\u00f6nemine (D\/3 ve D\/2 tabakalar\u0131) ait Tell el-Dab\u2018a buluntular\u0131nda g\u00f6zlemlenen M\u0131s\u0131r ve Siro-Filistin k\u00fclt\u00fcrel \u00f6\u011feleri kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131, Delta\u2019n\u0131n bat\u0131s\u0131ndan do\u011fusuna geni\u015f bir alanda fark edilebilir: Tell Fauziya ve Tell Geziret el-Faras (Tanitik Nil kolunun bat\u0131s\u0131nda) ile Farasha, Tell el-Yahudiya, Tell el-Maskhuta ve Tell el-Habua (do\u011fusunda). Bu alanlar\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fc Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019dan \u00e7ok daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fckt\u00fcr ve her birinin temel yerle\u015fim d\u00f6nemi en ge\u00e7 Hyksos tabakalar\u0131yla \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr; ancak Tell el-Maskhuta ve Tell el-Yahudiya, Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki son Hyksos evresinden (D\/2) \u00f6nce sona ermi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Maskhuta ve uydu alanlar\u0131, Sina\u2019n\u0131n kuzeyinden Filistin\u2019e giden ba\u015fl\u0131ca yollar\u0131ndan biri olan Wadi Tumilat\u2019ta konumlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Buras\u0131 k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir yerle\u015fim yeriydi, muhtemelen yaln\u0131zca mevsimsel olarak kullan\u0131l\u0131yordu. Avaris\u2019in zenginli\u011fi yaln\u0131zca Filistin ve Levant ile yap\u0131lan ticaretten de\u011fil, son evresinde \u00f6zellikle K\u0131br\u0131s ile kurulan ticaret ba\u011flant\u0131s\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kamose stelleri Hyksoslar taraf\u0131ndan ithal edilen mallar\u0131 listeler: \u201csava\u015f arabalar\u0131 ve atlar, gemiler, kereste, alt\u0131n, lapis lazuli, g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f, turkuaz, bronz, say\u0131s\u0131z balta, ya\u011f, t\u00fcts\u00fc, ya\u011f ve bal\u201d; ancak Hyksos krallar\u0131n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ne sunduklar\u0131na dair \u00e7ok az somut kan\u0131t vard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Avaris h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131, kendini Yukar\u0131 ve A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n kral\u0131 olarak tan\u0131tm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; ancak Kamose stellerinden, onun teorik g\u00fcney s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n\u0131n Hermopolis oldu\u011funu ve biraz daha g\u00fcneydeki Cusae\u2019nin ise fiili s\u0131n\u0131r noktas\u0131 oldu\u011funu biliyoruz. Bu b\u00f6lge, 12. ve 13. Hanedan krallar\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015fkenti olan Memphis ve Itjtawy\u2019yi kapsamaktad\u0131r. Peki, Avaris kral\u0131n\u0131n bu b\u00f6lgede nas\u0131l bir otorite uygulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 anla\u015f\u0131labilir mi ve Do\u011fu Delta\u2019ya \u00f6zg\u00fc bir k\u00fclt\u00fcr izlenebilir mi?Apepi\u2019nin K\u00fclt\u00fcrel Miras\u0131, Hyksos D\u00f6nemi ve Avaris\u2019in B\u00f6lgesel Etkisi<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

M\u0131s\u0131r tarz\u0131 y\u00f6netimi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebilmek i\u00e7in gerekli karma\u015f\u0131k b\u00fcrokrasiyi olu\u015fturmak ve kontrol alt\u0131nda tutmak amac\u0131yla gelenekler vazge\u00e7ilmezdi. Yaz\u0131c\u0131 Atu\u2019ya ait bir palet \u00fczerinde, Aauserra (Apepi) \u201cRa\u2019n\u0131n yaz\u0131c\u0131s\u0131, bizzat Thoth taraf\u0131ndan e\u011fitilmi\u015f… yaz\u0131lar\u0131n zor b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerini sadakatle okudu\u011fu g\u00fcn, yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 say\u0131s\u0131z ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 i\u015flerle, Nil gibi akan\u201d \u015feklinde tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Saltanat\u0131n\u0131n otuz \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc y\u0131l\u0131nda, Rhind Matematik Papir\u00fcs\u00fc\u2019n\u00fcn kopyaland\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu g\u00f6rev ancak zanaat\u0131n\u0131n en y\u00fcksek d\u00fczeyinde e\u011fitilmi\u015f ve Memphis\u2019teki Ptah Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131 gibi \u00f6zel matematiksel ar\u015fivlere eri\u015fimi olan bir yaz\u0131c\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131labilirdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yeni Krall\u0131k sonras\u0131 d\u00f6neme ait Memphis\u2019te bulunan bir stel, 11. Hanedan\u2019a kadar uzanan bir rahip soyunu belgelerken, Ahmose\u2019den \u00f6nceki d\u00f6neme ait Apepi ve Sharek isimlerini de i\u00e7erir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da Apepi ve k\u0131z karde\u015fi Tany\u2019yi anmak i\u00e7in yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir kutsal alan\u0131n par\u00e7alar\u0131 bulunmu\u015ftur. Bu alan iki Asyal\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan adanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve onlar\u0131n yaz\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131 Bat\u0131 Semitik isimlerini M\u0131s\u0131r hiyeroglif yaz\u0131s\u0131na uyarlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ayr\u0131ca, Apepi\u2019nin k\u0131z\u0131 Herit ad\u0131na ince hiyerogliflerle yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir tabak, 18. Hanedan h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 Amenhotep I\u2019in (M\u00d6 1525\u20131504) mezar\u0131nda bulunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hyksoslar k\u00fclt\u00fcrel bir olgu olarak \u201c\u00f6zg\u00fcn bi\u00e7imde M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131\u201d \u015feklinde tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Apepi d\u00f6nemine (D\/3 ve D\/2 tabakalar\u0131) ait Tell el-Dab\u2018a buluntular\u0131nda g\u00f6zlemlenen M\u0131s\u0131r ve Siro-Filistin k\u00fclt\u00fcrel \u00f6\u011feleri kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131, Delta\u2019n\u0131n bat\u0131s\u0131ndan do\u011fusuna geni\u015f bir alanda fark edilebilir: Tell Fauziya ve Tell Geziret el-Faras (Tanitik Nil kolunun bat\u0131s\u0131nda) ile Farasha, Tell el-Yahudiya, Tell el-Maskhuta ve Tell el-Habua (do\u011fusunda). Bu alanlar\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fc Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019dan \u00e7ok daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fckt\u00fcr ve her birinin temel yerle\u015fim d\u00f6nemi en ge\u00e7 Hyksos tabakalar\u0131yla \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr; ancak Tell el-Maskhuta ve Tell el-Yahudiya, Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki son Hyksos evresinden (D\/2) \u00f6nce sona ermi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tell el-Maskhuta ve uydu alanlar\u0131, Sina\u2019n\u0131n kuzeyinden Filistin\u2019e giden ba\u015fl\u0131ca yollar\u0131ndan biri olan Wadi Tumilat\u2019ta konumlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Buras\u0131 k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir yerle\u015fim yeriydi, muhtemelen yaln\u0131zca mevsimsel olarak kullan\u0131l\u0131yordu. Avaris\u2019in zenginli\u011fi yaln\u0131zca Filistin ve Levant ile yap\u0131lan ticaretten de\u011fil, son evresinde \u00f6zellikle K\u0131br\u0131s ile kurulan ticaret ba\u011flant\u0131s\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kamose stelleri Hyksoslar taraf\u0131ndan ithal edilen mallar\u0131 listeler: \u201csava\u015f arabalar\u0131 ve atlar, gemiler, kereste, alt\u0131n, lapis lazuli, g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f, turkuaz, bronz, say\u0131s\u0131z balta, ya\u011f, t\u00fcts\u00fc, ya\u011f ve bal\u201d; ancak Hyksos krallar\u0131n\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ne sunduklar\u0131na dair \u00e7ok az somut kan\u0131t vard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Avaris h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131, kendini Yukar\u0131 ve A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n kral\u0131 olarak tan\u0131tm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; ancak Kamose stellerinden, onun teorik g\u00fcney s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n\u0131n Hermopolis oldu\u011funu ve biraz daha g\u00fcneydeki Cusae\u2019nin ise fiili s\u0131n\u0131r noktas\u0131 oldu\u011funu biliyoruz. Bu b\u00f6lge, 12. ve 13. Hanedan krallar\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015fkenti olan Memphis ve Itjtawy\u2019yi kapsamaktad\u0131r. Peki, Avaris kral\u0131n\u0131n bu b\u00f6lgede nas\u0131l bir otorite uygulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 anla\u015f\u0131labilir mi ve Do\u011fu Delta\u2019ya \u00f6zg\u00fc bir k\u00fclt\u00fcr izlenebilir mi?<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Memfis: Ptah\u2019\u0131n Malikanesi ve Hyksos Egemenli\u011fi<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Josephus, Manetho\u2019dan do\u011frudan al\u0131nt\u0131 yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 iddia ederek Hyksos egemenli\u011fini \u015f\u00f6yle tan\u0131mlar: \u201cAna g\u00fc\u00e7le kolayca ele ge\u00e7irdiler, bir darbe bile vurmadan; \u00fclkenin y\u00f6neticilerini alt ederek \u015fehirlerimizi ac\u0131mas\u0131zca yakt\u0131lar, tanr\u0131lar\u0131n tap\u0131naklar\u0131n\u0131 yerle bir ettiler… Sonunda, aralar\u0131ndan Salitis ad\u0131nda birini kral olarak atad\u0131lar. Memfis\u2019i merkez edinmi\u015fti, Yukar\u0131 ve A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019dan vergi topluyordu ve her zaman en stratejik noktalarda garnizonlar b\u0131rak\u0131yordu.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hyksos y\u00f6netiminin bu tasviri, Thebesli kral Kamose\u2019un vasal stat\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc reddetmesiyle do\u011frulan\u0131r. Kamose metinlerinde Cusae s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n\u0131n s\u0131k\u0131 denetimi, Nil \u00fczerindeki t\u00fcm trafi\u011fe vergi konulmas\u0131 ve Asyatiklerden olu\u015fan, M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 komutanlar taraf\u0131ndan y\u00f6netilen garnizonlar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair bilgiler yer al\u0131r. Hyksos krallar\u0131, muhtemelen b\u00fcrokratik ve asker\u00ee kurumlar\u0131 h\u00e2l\u00e2 i\u015fleyen 12. Hanedan krallar\u0131n\u0131n Nubia\u2019daki y\u00f6netim modelini takip ediyorlard\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kamose anlat\u0131m\u0131, Memfis\u2019in kilit rol\u00fcn\u00fc de a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a ortaya koyar. Her ne kadar Avaris Hyksos kral\u0131n\u0131n ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fehir ve g\u00fc\u00e7 merkezi olsa da, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n, hatta kuzey k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131n bile do\u011fu Deltadan y\u00f6netilmesi m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildi. M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 y\u00f6netmek, Nil\u2019i kontrol etmek anlam\u0131na geliyordu ve her M\u0131s\u0131r h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 bunu Deltan\u0131n zirvesindeki b\u00f6lgeden\u2014yani Memfis ve modern Kahire \u00e7evresinden\u2014ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hyksoslar taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f tahribat ve ya\u011fmaya dair tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131z kan\u0131tlar nadirdir. 12. Hanedan kral\u0131 Amenemhat III\u2019e ait d\u00f6rt devasa sfenks ve 13. Hanedan kral\u0131 Smenkhera\u2019ya ait iki heykel Tanis\u2019te bulunmu\u015ftur. \u00dczerlerinde Aauserra Apepi\u2019nin di\u011fer bir ad\u0131 olan Aqenenra Apepi\u2019nin yaz\u0131tlar\u0131 vard\u0131r. Ptah\u2019a adanm\u0131\u015f orijinal yaz\u0131tlar\u0131, ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta Memfis\u2019te dikildiklerini g\u00f6sterir. Genellikle Apepi taraf\u0131ndan Avaris\u2019e ta\u015f\u0131nd\u0131klar\u0131 ve daha sonra Ramessid d\u00f6neminde Tanis\u2019e g\u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fckleri varsay\u0131l\u0131r; fakat kesin olan tek \u015fey, Apepi\u2019nin ad\u0131n\u0131 bu eserlerin \u00fczerine kaz\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131d\u0131r\u2014eserler Ramessid d\u00f6nemine kadar belki de hi\u00e7 Memfis\u2019ten ayr\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bununla birlikte, bir 13. Hanedan kral\u0131na ait en az bir kraliyet an\u0131t\u0131n\u0131n ihlale u\u011frad\u0131\u011f\u0131 belgelenmi\u015ftir: Merneferra Ay\u2019a ait piramidin tepesindeki piramit par\u00e7as\u0131 (pyramidion), b\u00fcy\u00fck olas\u0131l\u0131kla Saqqara\u2019da in\u015fa edilen yap\u0131n\u0131n par\u00e7as\u0131yd\u0131 ve Tell el-Dab\u2018a yak\u0131nlar\u0131ndaki Faqus\u2019ta bulunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Memfis ve Hyksos D\u00f6nemi K\u00fclt\u00fcrel Kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Bug\u00fcne dek, Hyksos krallar\u0131n\u0131n Memfis gelene\u011fine uygun bi\u00e7imde Bat\u0131 \u00c7\u00f6l\u00fc\u2019nde, \u015fehre bakan alanda cenaze an\u0131tlar\u0131 yapt\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair hi\u00e7bir kan\u0131t yoktur. Ancak Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki Ahmose\u2019un zaferiyle ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen kapsaml\u0131 y\u0131k\u0131m\u0131 ve sonraki krallar\u0131n yap\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131 arzusunu g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcnde bulundurarak, bu t\u00fcr kan\u0131tlar\u0131n yoklu\u011funa dayanarak kolayca sonuca varmak risklidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00d6rne\u011fin, Khyan (yakla\u015f\u0131k M\u00d6 1600) ve Aauserra Apepi\u2019nin isimlerini ta\u015f\u0131yan biri kire\u00e7ta\u015f\u0131, biri granit olan iki blok, Gebelein\u2019deki Hathor Tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131\u2019nda bulunmu\u015ftur. Hyksoslar\u0131n bu b\u00f6lgeyi hi\u00e7 kontrol etti\u011fine dair a\u00e7\u0131k bir kan\u0131t olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in, bu bloklar\u0131n muhtemelen Memfis k\u00f6kenli oldu\u011fu ve Yeni Krall\u0131k d\u00f6neminde Gebelein\u2019e ta\u015f\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131 varsay\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1980\u2019lerde, Egypt Exploration Society taraf\u0131ndan Memfis\u2019teki geni\u015f harabe alan\u0131nda yap\u0131lan bir ara\u015ft\u0131rman\u0131n par\u00e7as\u0131 olarak \u015fehirde k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir alan kaz\u0131ld\u0131 ve \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019e ait katmanlar ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131. \u00c7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlek, ev mimarisi, m\u00fch\u00fcr bask\u0131l\u0131 bal\u00e7\u0131klar, metal i\u015f\u00e7ili\u011fi ve boncuklar gibi buluntulara bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, bu toplulu\u011fun k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc tamamen M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131yd\u0131\u2014\u00f6zellikle Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki k\u00fclt\u00fcrel \u00f6zelliklerle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda. Bu k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn, 13. Hanedan\u2019dan itibaren kesintisiz bir bi\u00e7imde geli\u015fti\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

M\u0131s\u0131r \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlekleri aras\u0131ndaki benzerlikler sayesinde Memfis\u2019teki katmanlarla Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019dakiler ili\u015fkilendirilmi\u015ftir ve bu, her iki b\u00f6lgede de Hyksos\u2019un son tabakas\u0131 olan D\/2\u2019den sonra b\u00fcy\u00fck bir kopu\u015f oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir. Bu kopu\u015fun ard\u0131ndan Memfis\u2019te kal\u0131c\u0131 yap\u0131lar\u0131n in\u015fa edilmedi\u011fi kumlu tortullar gelir; bu katmanlardaki \u00e7\u00f6mlekler giderek artan \u015fekilde 18. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n en erken d\u00f6nemlerine ait Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r bi\u00e7imlerini ta\u015f\u0131r. Sonraki evrelerde yap\u0131lar farkl\u0131 bir d\u00fczende in\u015fa edilmi\u015f ve \u00e7\u00f6mlekler belirgin \u015fekilde erken 18. Hanedan stilini yans\u0131tm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu kumlu katmanlar\u0131n, Hyksos ile Thebes aras\u0131nda ya\u015fanan sava\u015f d\u00f6nemine denk geldi\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Memfis\u2019te eksik olan unsur, Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da ge\u00e7 12. Hanedan\u2019dan itibaren g\u00f6r\u00fclen Orta Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrel \u00f6\u011feleridir. Filistin k\u00f6kenli \u00e7\u00f6mlek ithalat\u0131 ve bu \u00e7\u00f6mleklerin M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da yap\u0131lan kopyalar\u0131 her iki b\u00f6lgede de mevcut olmakla birlikte, Memfis\u2019te bunlar toplam envanterin y\u00fczde 2\u2019sinden az\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015ftururken, Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da bu oran y\u00fczde 20 ila 40 aras\u0131ndad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Memfis\u2019te, kaz\u0131lan en erken tabakalardan (13. Hanedan ortalar\u0131) \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019in sonuna kadar herhangi bir k\u00fclt\u00fcrel kopu\u015f ya\u015fanmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Saqqara ve Dahshur\u2019da Orta Krall\u0131k\u2019tan Yeni Krall\u0131k\u2019a Ge\u00e7i\u015f \u0130zleri<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Memfis\u2019e en yak\u0131n nekropol olan Saqqara\u2019da, ge\u00e7 Orta Krall\u0131k d\u00f6neminde faaliyetlerin odak noktas\u0131, Kral Teti\u2019ye (M\u00d6 2345\u20132323) ait \u00f6l\u00fc tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131yd\u0131. Burada \u00f6zel mezarlar bulunur ve kral k\u00fclt\u00fcn\u00fcn 13. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131na kadar s\u00fcrekli kutland\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair kan\u0131tlar vard\u0131r. Ge\u00e7 13. Hanedan ve \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019e dair ise \u015fimdiye kadar sadece bir adet b\u00fct\u00fcn halde korunmu\u015f mezar tespit edilmi\u015ftir. Bu mezarda, dikd\u00f6rtgen bir lahit i\u00e7ine yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015f bir adam bulunmu\u015ftur. Ad\u0131 “Abdu” olan bu ki\u015finin Asyatik k\u00f6kenli oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir ve yan\u0131nda, Kral Apepi\u2019nin takip\u00e7isi Nahman\u2019a ait bir isim ta\u015f\u0131yan bir han\u00e7er yer almaktad\u0131r. Ancak han\u00e7er d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda buluntular hen\u00fcz yay\u0131mlanmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in bu g\u00f6m\u00fcn\u00fcn Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki benzer tarihlere ait mezarlarla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131p kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lamayaca\u011f\u0131 belirsizdir; dikd\u00f6rtgen lahit bi\u00e7imi, farkl\u0131 bir gelene\u011fe i\u015faret eder. Ayr\u0131ca han\u00e7er g\u00f6m\u00fcyle \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f m\u0131, yoksa bir miras par\u00e7as\u0131 m\u0131, hen\u00fcz bilinmemektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu belirsiz bulgu d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, ayn\u0131 b\u00f6lgede Ahmose ve Amenhotep I gibi erken 18. Hanedan h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131 d\u00f6nemine ait zengin y\u00fczey mezarlar\u0131ndan olu\u015fan geni\u015f bir mezarl\u0131k oldu\u011funa dair a\u00e7\u0131k kan\u0131tlar mevcuttur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dahshur\u2019da ise, 12. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n iki b\u00fcy\u00fck kral\u0131 Senusret III ve Amenemhat III\u2019e ait \u00f6l\u00fc kompleksleri bulunur. Buradaki rit\u00fcel faaliyetlerin en az\u0131ndan erken 13. Hanedan\u2019a kadar s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Kral Awibra Hor o d\u00f6nemde buraya g\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Daha sonraki bir tarihte, Amenemhat III\u2019\u00fcn \u00f6l\u00fc kompleksinin i\u00e7ine b\u00fcy\u00fck kerpi\u00e7 tah\u0131l silolar\u0131 in\u015fa edilmi\u015ftir. Bu silolar zamanla harap olunca, yak\u0131nlardaki k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir yerle\u015fim yerinden \u00e7\u0131kan \u00e7\u00f6mleklerin at\u0131k \u00e7ukuru olarak kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Benzer \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlekler, Memfis\u2019te kum tabakalar\u0131n\u0131n alt\u0131ndaki katmanlarda ve Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da G\/4 tabakas\u0131ndan itibaren de g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlekler a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a Orta Krall\u0131k d\u00f6nemine ait ve tamamen M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 karakterdedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

G\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015fe g\u00f6re, erken 13. Hanedan\u2019dan sonra Dahshur\u2019daki kutsal alana yap\u0131lar in\u015fa edilmi\u015ftir; bu yap\u0131lar, ne kadar s\u00fcreyle yerle\u015fildi\u011fi hen\u00fcz net olmasa da, s\u00fcregelen bir yerle\u015fimle ili\u015fkilidir. Ard\u0131ndan, Ramessid d\u00f6nemine kadar hi\u00e7bir faaliyet izine rastlanmamaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dahshur\u2019daki ‘silo’ \u00e7\u00f6mlekleri, Senusret II\u2019nin \u00f6l\u00fc kompleksinin yak\u0131n\u0131nda olu\u015fan yerle\u015fimde de g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Ancak daha sonra Lahun\u2019da bu \u00e7\u00f6mleklerden bir bo\u015fluk ya\u015fan\u0131r ve ancak 18. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n ortalar\u0131na ait \u00e7\u00f6mlekler yeniden ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Lisht Nekropol\u00fc, Itjtawy Saray\u0131 ve Kral\u0131n \u0130lahi Temsili<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Itjtawy\u2019ye (12. ve 13. Hanedan krallar\u0131n\u0131n kraliyet ikametg\u00e2h\u0131) en yak\u0131n nekropol olan Lisht\u2019te durum daha karma\u015f\u0131kt\u0131r. Amenemhat I\u2019in piramidinin etraf\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00f6zel mezarl\u0131k geli\u015fmi\u015f; bu mezarl\u0131k zamanla kraliyet cenaze kompleksinin i\u00e7ine kadar girmi\u015ftir. Bu en ge\u00e7 mezarlar aras\u0131nda, hem Tell el-Yahudiya\u2019da hem de Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019n\u0131n Hyksos d\u00f6nemine ait D\/3 ve D\/2 tabakalar\u0131ndaki mezarlarda bulunan Tell el-Yahudiya tipi \u00e7\u00f6mleklerin yer ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 baz\u0131 olduk\u00e7a zengin g\u00f6m\u00fcler mevcuttur. Lisht\u2019teki bu son mezarlar tamamen M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 karakterdedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \n
  1. Hanedan d\u00f6neminde, nekropol ile ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 bir i\u015f\u00e7i yerle\u015fimi ayn\u0131 b\u00f6lgede geli\u015fmi\u015ftir ve bu yap\u0131lar\u0131n i\u00e7inde, hem i\u015fgal d\u00f6neminde hem de sonras\u0131nda baz\u0131 mezar \u015faftlar\u0131 kaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. M\u0131s\u0131r gelene\u011fine ayk\u0131r\u0131 bu t\u00fcr mezar bi\u00e7imi Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019dakilerle benzerlik g\u00f6sterir; ancak buradaki ki\u015filerin M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 olmad\u0131klar\u0131na dair ba\u015fka bir kan\u0131t yoktur. Ev ve mezarlar\u0131n kaz\u0131lar\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan y\u00fczey kal\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131nda, 16. Hanedan\u2019dan h\u00fck\u00fcmdar Swadjenra Nebererau I\u2019in (yakla\u015f\u0131k M\u00d6 1615\u20131595) ad\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yan iki scarab bulunmu\u015ftur. Onun tarihleri, Bietak\u2019\u0131n O\/3 tabakas\u0131na atad\u0131\u011f\u0131 aral\u0131\u011fa denk gelmektedir.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

    Lisht\u2019te 18. Hanedan\u2019a ait herhangi bir iz, ancak III. Thutmose d\u00f6neminden itibaren g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Nekropol\u00fcn kullan\u0131m\u0131 ve Orta Krall\u0131k k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem boyunca Lisht\u2019te s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne dair bu kan\u0131tlara ra\u011fmen, kral\u0131n ve saray\u0131n\u0131n Itjtawy\u2019den Thebes\u2019e ne zaman ta\u015f\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131 sorusu h\u00e2l\u00e2 yan\u0131tlanamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \n
    1. Hanedan\u2019dan Lisht\u2019te an\u0131t sahibi oldu\u011fu bilinen son kral Merneferra Ay\u2019d\u0131r (yakla\u015f\u0131k M\u00d6 1695\u20131685). Ayr\u0131ca Elkab\u2019da, Horus\u2019un tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015f denet\u00e7isi olan Horemkhauef adl\u0131 bir g\u00f6revlinin tan\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131r. Bu g\u00f6revli Horus\u2019un ve tanr\u0131\u00e7a \u0130sis\u2019in heykellerini toplamak \u00fczere g\u00f6revlendirilmi\u015ftir. Mezar\u0131n\u0131n avlusunda bulunan steli, bu g\u00f6rev s\u0131ras\u0131nda Itjtawy\u2019ye yap\u0131lan ziyareti \u015fu s\u00f6zlerle anlat\u0131r:<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
      \n

      \u201cBabas\u0131n\u0131n intikam\u0131n\u0131 alan Horus, beni \u0130kametg\u00e2ha g\u00f6nderdi; Horus\u2019u ve onun annesi \u0130sis\u2019i oradan almak i\u00e7in… Beni gemi ve m\u00fcrettebat\u0131n komutan\u0131 olarak atad\u0131, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ehil bir g\u00f6revlisi oldu\u011fumu biliyordu, g\u00f6revlerine dikkat g\u00f6steren. Sonra a\u015fa\u011f\u0131ya do\u011fru iyi bir yolculuk yapt\u0131m ve Nekhen\u2019in Horus\u2019unu bu tanr\u0131\u00e7ayla birlikte Itjtawy\u2019nin iyi makam\u0131ndan, kral\u0131n huzurunda ellerimde \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131m.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

      Horemkhauef taraf\u0131ndan toplanan ilahi imgelerin b\u00fcy\u00fck olas\u0131l\u0131kla yeni yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ya da restore edilmi\u015f heykeller oldu\u011fu ve krall\u0131kla ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 bir festivalde kullan\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. Bu nedenle, o d\u00f6nemde yaln\u0131zca \u0130kametg\u00e2h\u2019\u0131n (Itjtawy) zanaatk\u00e2rlar, yaz\u0131c\u0131lar ve okuyucu rahiplerin b\u00f6yle imgeleri yapabildi\u011fi bir yer oldu\u011fu anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Horemkhauef\u2019in uzun bir yolculu\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131n\u0131n ve ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131yla \u00f6v\u00fcnmesinin sebebi budur. Ne yaz\u0131k ki, onu g\u00f6nderen kral\u0131n ad\u0131 verilmemi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Bu t\u00fcr heykellerin yap\u0131lmas\u0131, M\u0131s\u0131r kral\u0131n\u0131n ilahi stat\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc onaylamas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayan en \u00f6nemli eylemlerden biriydi. Bu t\u00fcr tanr\u0131sal g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerin yarat\u0131lmas\u0131na dair g\u00f6ndermeler, Eski Krall\u0131k\u2019\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131ndan itibaren t\u00fcm kraliyet y\u0131ll\u0131klar\u0131nda mevcuttur. Bu kutsal zanaatk\u00e2rl\u0131k gelene\u011fi\u2014ki kral onun koruyucusuydu\u2014\u0130kametg\u00e2h terk edilip Memfis ile ba\u011flar kesildi\u011finde a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a sona ermi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Yaz\u0131 Gelene\u011findeki K\u0131r\u0131lma, Fayum Mezarl\u0131klar\u0131 ve \u0130kametg\u00e2h\u0131n Ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      Sanatsal gelene\u011fin kayb\u0131n\u0131n bir sonucu, “hiyeroglif gelene\u011fi” olarak tan\u0131mlanan bir k\u0131r\u0131lmaya yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Cenaze yaz\u0131tlar\u0131nda kullan\u0131lan form\u00fcllerin yaz\u0131m\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fmi\u015ftir; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu yaz\u0131tlar art\u0131k idari belgelerde kullan\u0131lan e\u011fik yaz\u0131 (hiyeratik) konusunda e\u011fitim g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f yaz\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131n etkisi alt\u0131nda \u00fcretiliyordu. Oysa daha \u00f6nceki yaz\u0131tlar, ta\u015f an\u0131tlar \u00fczerine hiyeroglif oyma konusunda \u00f6zel e\u011fitim alm\u0131\u015f yaz\u0131c\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan haz\u0131rlan\u0131yordu. Cenaze form\u00fcllerindeki bu yaz\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fimi, yaz\u0131tlar\u0131n Orta Krall\u0131k’tan \u00f6nce mi yoksa sonra m\u0131 yaz\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 tarihlendirmek i\u00e7in kullan\u0131labilmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Horemkhauef’in steli \u00fczerindeki yaz\u0131, Orta Krall\u0131k sonras\u0131 t\u00fcrdedir ve bu da siyasi par\u00e7alanman\u0131n belki de onun ya\u015fam\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmektedir. Elkab’da yaz\u0131tlarla belgelenmi\u015f g\u00f6revlilere ait soy a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131ndan bir kronoloji \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Buna dayanarak Horemkhauef’in mezar\u0131n\u0131n M\u00d6 1650\u20131630 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda haz\u0131rland\u0131\u011f\u0131 ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclmektedir. E\u011fer \u0130kametg\u00e2h\u2019a yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ziyaret, y\u00fcksek g\u00f6rev s\u00fcresinin ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131na denk geldiyse, bu ziyaretin M\u00d6 1670\u20131650 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fi varsay\u0131labilir\u2014ki bu da M\u00d6 1685’te sona eren Merneferra Ay\u2019\u0131n h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan en az on be\u015f y\u0131l sonras\u0131na tekab\u00fcl eder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Fayum Vahas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n giri\u015finde yer alan \u00fc\u00e7 k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck mezarl\u0131k (Maiyana, Abusir el-Melek ve Gurob), Hyksoslar ile Thebesliler aras\u0131ndaki sava\u015flar d\u00f6nemine tarihlenmektedir; bu d\u00f6nem ba\u015fka yerlerde yaln\u0131zca Memfis \u00fczerinden temsil edilmektedir. Bu Fayum g\u00f6m\u00fcleri M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 karakter ta\u015f\u0131r; \u00f6l\u00fcler dikd\u00f6rtgen lahitlere uzat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bi\u00e7imde yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. Gurob’da iki mezarda Kerma tipi \u00e7\u00f6mlekler bulunmu\u015ftur ve bu ki\u015filerin Thebes ordusunda g\u00f6rev alan Kerma k\u00f6kenli N\u00fcbililer oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. Abusir\u2019deki bozulmam\u0131\u015f bir mezarda Hyksos h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 Khyan\u2019a ait bir scarab bulunmu\u015f, bu da g\u00f6m\u00fc i\u00e7in bir “terminus post quem” sa\u011flamaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Maiyana\u2019daki (Sedment el-Gebel yak\u0131n\u0131nda yer alan, kad\u0131n, erkek ve \u00e7ocuklara ait k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir mezarl\u0131k) \u00e7\u00f6mlekler aras\u0131nda, Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki D\/2 tabakas\u0131nda bulunanlara benzeyen silindirik tarak s\u00fcslemeli Tell el-Yahudiya \u015fi\u015feleri ile, Tell el-Dab\u2018a ve Memfis\u2019te 18. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n en erken tabakalar\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclen K\u0131br\u0131s k\u00f6kenli base-ring I tipi ithal \u015fi\u015feler yer al\u0131r. Silah bulunmam\u0131\u015f, sadece bir f\u0131rlatma sopas\u0131 vard\u0131r; ancak koyun postlar\u0131n\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131 ve \u00f6l\u00fclerin t\u00fcy ve \u00e7i\u00e7eklerle s\u00fcslenmesi tipik bir M\u0131s\u0131r gelene\u011fi de\u011fildir. Bu k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck mezarl\u0131k, Avaris’te geli\u015fen topluluktan farkl\u0131, k\u0131sa \u00f6m\u00fcrl\u00fc yabanc\u0131 bir toplulu\u011fun varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belgeliyor gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Yeni Krall\u0131k d\u00f6nemi mezarl\u0131klar\u0131ndan el-Haraga ve el-Riqqa\u2019daki baz\u0131 k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck mezarlar, Maiyana\u2013Gurob\u2013Abusir el-Melek\u2013Memfis \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlek grubuyla paralellikler g\u00f6sterir ve bu b\u00f6lgedeki \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019in son evresi ile 18. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki ge\u00e7i\u015fi i\u015faretleyen k\u0131sa \u00f6m\u00fcrl\u00fc ama ay\u0131rt edici bir arkeolojik evreyi do\u011frular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Bu ge\u00e7i\u015f d\u00f6neminden yakla\u015f\u0131k 130 y\u0131l \u00f6nce, kral \u0130kametg\u00e2h\u0131n\u0131 Itjtawy’den Thebes\u2019e ta\u015f\u0131m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu \u00f6nemli olaydan \u00f6nce bile, 12. Hanedan krallar\u0131n\u0131n cenaze komplekslerindeki kutsal alanlar ihlal edilmeye ba\u015flanm\u0131\u015f, atalara y\u00f6nelik kraliyet k\u00fcltleri kutlanmay\u0131 b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak Lisht’te mezarl\u0131k (ve muhtemelen yerle\u015fim) \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019in sonuna kadar kullan\u0131lmaya devam etmi\u015ftir. E\u011fer nekropol\u00fcn ya\u015fam\u0131 sarayla paralel ilerliyorsa, o h\u00e2lde o da bir \u015fekilde varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f olmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Cusae: M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 ile Asyatik Nil’in S\u0131n\u0131r\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      Thebesli h\u00fck\u00fcmdar Kamose\u2019a dan\u0131\u015fmanlar\u0131 \u015f\u00f6yle demi\u015ftir: \u201cOrta \u00fclke Cusae\u2019ye kadar bizimle birliktedir.\u201d Kamose d\u00f6nemine ait metinler, \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019de Orta M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n tarihine dair elimizdeki en iyi yaz\u0131l\u0131 kaynak olmaya devam etmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Krali\u00e7e Hatshepsut\u2019un (M\u00d6 1473\u20131458) Speos Artemidos\u2019ta, Cusae\u2019nin (el-Qusiya) yakla\u015f\u0131k 100 km kuzeyindeki bir yaz\u0131t\u0131nda, b\u00f6lgedeki tap\u0131naklar\u0131n yo\u011fun bi\u00e7imde restore edildi\u011fi ve yeniden kutsand\u0131\u011f\u0131 aktar\u0131l\u0131r:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \n

      \u201cKuzey \u00dclkesi\u2019ndeki Avaris\u2019te Asyatikler ilk kez bulundu\u011funda, i\u00e7lerinde dola\u015fan s\u00fcr\u00fcler, yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olanlar\u0131 y\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda par\u00e7alanm\u0131\u015f olan\u0131 yeniden aya\u011fa kald\u0131rd\u0131m\u2026 Cusae\u2019nin Han\u0131mefendisi\u2019nin tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6km\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc, topra\u011f\u0131n soylu mabedi yutmu\u015ftu ve \u00e7ocuklar \u00e7at\u0131s\u0131nda dans ediyordu.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

      Bu kraliyet propagandas\u0131, Hatshepsut\u2019u kaos sonras\u0131 d\u00fczeni yeniden tesis eden geleneksel h\u00fck\u00fcmdar rol\u00fcnde g\u00f6stermeyi ama\u00e7lam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Yaz\u0131c\u0131s\u0131, Hyksos\u2013Thebes sava\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n \u00fczerinden seksen y\u0131l\u0131 a\u015fk\u0131n bir s\u00fcre sonra yaz\u0131yordu ve burada \u201ci\u00e7lerinde dola\u015fan s\u00fcr\u00fcler\u201d ifadesinin Avaris ordular\u0131n\u0131 m\u0131, yoksa Thebes birliklerini mi kastetti\u011fi net de\u011fildir\u2014ikisinin de olmas\u0131 e\u015fit derecede olas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \u00d6nemli olan, olaydan bu kadar zaman sonra bile M\u0131s\u0131r y\u00f6neticilerinin Hyksoslar\u0131 \u00fclkeden kovma anlat\u0131s\u0131 \u00fczerinden siyasal me\u015fruiyet kazanmaya devam etmi\u015f olmalar\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Cusae: G\u00fcneydeki Vergi S\u0131n\u0131r\u0131 ve Pan-Mezarlar\u0131n \u0130zinde Nubyal\u0131 Medjaylar<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      Cusae, Hermopolis\u2019in (el-Ashmunein) yakla\u015f\u0131k 40 km g\u00fcneyinde yer al\u0131r; Hermopolis, Orta Krall\u0131k d\u00f6neminde b\u00f6lge y\u00f6netiminin merkeziydi. Horemkhauef\u2019in muhtemelen M\u00d6 1670\u20131650 aras\u0131nda Lisht\u2019teki saraya yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ziyarette Nil h\u00e2l\u00e2 a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. Ancak k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre sonra Cusae, g\u00fcneyden gelen bir yolcunun Avaris h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131na ilerleyebilmek i\u00e7in vergi \u00f6demesi gereken s\u0131n\u0131r haline geldi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Kamose\u2019nin kral Apepi\u2019nin Kush kral\u0131na bir mektup yollayan el\u00e7isini yakalad\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair anlat\u0131m\u0131ndan, Hyksos\u2019un \u2018Sako\u2019dan (muhtemelen bug\u00fcnk\u00fc el-Qes) Bat\u0131 \u00c7\u00f6l\u00fc vahalar\u0131 arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla, birinci ve ikinci Nil \u015felaleleri aras\u0131nda yer alan Nubya\u2019daki Tumas\u2019a kadar uzanan g\u00fczerg\u00e2h\u0131 kontrol etti\u011fi anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131yor. Bu rota, Avaris kral\u0131na hem alt\u0131na hem de Kush\u2019un sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 m\u00fcttefik krallar\u0131na eri\u015fim sa\u011fl\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \u015eelale tahkimatlar\u0131ndan en az \u00fc\u00e7\u00fc\u2014Buhen, Mirgissa ve Uronarti\u2014i\u015flevseldi. Her ne kadar M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a m\u0131 yoksa Kush\u2019a m\u0131 ba\u011fl\u0131 olduklar\u0131 tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lsa da, g\u00fcney ucundan vahalar\u0131 denetleyecek ve alt\u0131n madenlerine seferler g\u00f6nderecek bir organizasyon mevcuttu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Cusae\u2019deki s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131rmalara ra\u011fmen, Alt M\u0131s\u0131r ile Nubya aras\u0131nda, \u00f6zellikle vahalar \u00fczerinden d\u00fczenli temas ve ticaret s\u00fcrmekteydi. Bu, hem \u015felale tahkimatlar\u0131nda hem de Kush ba\u015fkenti Kerma\u2019da bulunan \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlek ve \u00e7amur m\u00fch\u00fcrlerinden a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. \u00d6zellikle Buhen\u2019de bu temas\u0131n, M\u00d6 13. Hanedan\u2019dan Hyksos\u2019un 15. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131na kadar kesintisiz s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Cusae\u2019nin yakla\u015f\u0131k 50 km g\u00fcneyinde kaz\u0131lan mezarl\u0131klar\u2014Deir Rifa, Mostagedda ve Qau\u2019da\u2014Orta M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n tarihsel tasvirini geni\u015fletmektedir. Deir Rifa\u2019daki \u201cS Mezarl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u201d, \u2018pan-mezar\u2019 halk\u0131 olarak bilinen bir grup Nubyal\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6m\u00fclerini i\u00e7erir. Bu isim, belirgin \u015fekilde oval ve s\u0131\u011f mezar tiplerinden gelir. Bu yar\u0131-g\u00f6\u00e7ebe s\u0131\u011f\u0131r yeti\u015ftiricileri, \u00e7\u00f6l\u00fcn kenar\u0131nda ya\u015farlard\u0131. Kamose metinlerinde ge\u00e7en Medjaylar ile \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015ftirilmektedirler; Kamose\u2019nin filosunun \u00f6n\u00fcnden kara ke\u015ffi i\u00e7in g\u00f6nderilmi\u015flerdi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Onlara \u00f6zg\u00fc el yap\u0131m\u0131 seramikler, Orta Krall\u0131k yerle\u015fimlerinde yayg\u0131n bi\u00e7imde g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr ve kuzeyde Memphis\u2019e kadar ula\u015f\u0131r. Deir Rifa\u2019daki mezarlar\u0131nda Tell el-Yahudiya t\u00fcr\u00fc kaplar bulundu; bunlar, Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki E\/i seviyesinden bilinen \u00f6rneklerle benzerlik ta\u015f\u0131r ve Hyksos\u2019un 15. Hanedan\u0131 ortalar\u0131na tarihlenir. Mezarlarla ili\u015fkili M\u0131s\u0131r \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlekleri ise Memphis b\u00f6lgesinin Orta Krall\u0131k tarz\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131t\u0131r ve mezarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n muhtemelen 13. Hanedan ba\u015flar\u0131na dek uzand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Cusae\u2019nin \u0130deolojik S\u0131n\u0131r\u0131: Hyksos D\u00f6neminde Mezarl\u0131klar, Medjaylar ve K\u00fclt\u00fcrel Temaslar<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019de Cusae, yaln\u0131zca co\u011frafi bir s\u0131n\u0131r de\u011fil; Yukar\u0131 ve A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r aras\u0131nda vergilendirme, kontrol ve ideolojik ayr\u0131m\u0131n somutla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir e\u015fikti. Kamose d\u00f6nemine ait metinlerde bu s\u0131n\u0131r a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a vurgulan\u0131rken, Hatshepsut\u2019un Speos Artemidos yaz\u0131t\u0131nda Cusae\u2019nin tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131, Asyatik istilalar sonras\u0131 \u201c\u00e7ocuklar\u0131n \u00e7at\u0131s\u0131nda dans etti\u011fi\u201d bir harabe olarak tasvir edilir\u2014bu, krali\u00e7e Hatshepsut\u2019un restorasyon anlat\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 siyasi me\u015fruiyet i\u00e7in kullan\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Cusae\u2019nin g\u00fcneyindeki Deir Rifa ve Mostagedda mezarl\u0131klar\u0131, ayn\u0131 Nubyal\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrel gruba ait olsa da, g\u00f6m\u00fc donan\u0131mlar\u0131 farkl\u0131l\u0131k g\u00f6sterir: Deir Rifa Memphis b\u00f6lgesiyle, Mostagedda ise Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019la ili\u015fkilidir. Bu ayr\u0131m, zaman fark\u0131ndan \u00e7ok stat\u00fc, zenginlik ve b\u00f6lgesel aidiyetle ilgilidir ve Cusae’nin s\u0131n\u0131r rol\u00fcn\u00fc arkeolojik verilerle peki\u015ftirir. Mezarl\u0131klarda bulunan pan-mezar halk\u0131na ait kal\u0131nt\u0131lar\u2014\u00f6zellikle Medjaylarla ili\u015fkilendirilen yar\u0131-g\u00f6\u00e7ebe s\u0131\u011f\u0131r yeti\u015ftiricileri\u2014hem Hyksos\u2019un hem de Thebesli krallar\u0131n s\u0131n\u0131r g\u00fcvenli\u011fini sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131na i\u015faret eder. Deir Rifa grubunun bat\u0131 yakas\u0131nda Hyksos i\u00e7in, Mostagedda grubunun do\u011fu k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131nda Thebes i\u00e7in devriye gezdi\u011fi \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fclebilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Medjaylar ve pan-mezar halk\u0131, yaln\u0131zca askeri fig\u00fcrler de\u011fil; iki d\u00fcnya aras\u0131nda arac\u0131l\u0131k eden k\u00fclt\u00fcrel haf\u0131zalard\u0131r. \u00c7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlek, m\u00fch\u00fcr ve g\u00f6m\u00fc tipi gibi maddi kal\u0131nt\u0131lar, Cusae\u2019deki s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n hem rit\u00fcel hem de ideolojik haritas\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6zler \u00f6n\u00fcne serer. \u0130ktidar, burada bedenin g\u00f6m\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc yerle temellenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Thebes\u2019in G\u00fcney Y\u00fckseli\u015fi: 16. ve 17. Hanedanlar\u0131n \u0130deolojik Temelleri<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019in kaotik siyaset ortam\u0131nda, Ryholt\u2019un Turin Kraliyet Listesi (Turin Canon) \u00fczerine yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 yeniden in\u015fa \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 sayesinde, Manetho\u2019nun 16. Hanedan\u0131 kapsam\u0131nda 15 kral ad\u0131 tespit edilmi\u015ftir. Bunlar, 17. Hanedan h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nc\u00fclleri olarak kabul edilir. Be\u015finin \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f kaynaklarda ad\u0131 ge\u00e7mektedir ve bu da g\u00fc\u00e7 merkezlerinin Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r oldu\u011funu g\u00f6sterir. T\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn Thebes\u2019ten y\u00f6netim sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 kesin de\u011fildir; Abydos, Elkab ve Edfu gibi kentlerdeki yerel h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar da olabilirler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \ud83d\udd38 Wepwawetemsaf: Yerel Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n Sessiz \u0130fadesi<\/strong> Turin Listesi\u2019nde yer almayan Wepwawetemsaf, Abydos\u2019taki m\u00fctevaz\u0131 stelinde Wepwawet\u2019e, yani yerel tanr\u0131ya sunuda bulunurken tasvir edilir. Yaz\u0131m tarz\u0131, tasar\u0131m\u0131 ve kraliyet simgeleri onu 13. ile 17. Hanedanlar aras\u0131nda bir ge\u00e7i\u015f noktas\u0131na konumland\u0131r\u0131r\u2014kral\u0131n ismi bile tanr\u0131s\u0131yla \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015fmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \ud83d\udd38 Neferhotep: Silahl\u0131 Thebes Tanr\u0131\u00e7as\u0131 E\u015fli\u011finde Krall\u0131k \u0130deolojisi<\/strong> Kesin olarak Thebes\u2019ten h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bilinen kral Neferhotep, kendisini ordu taraf\u0131ndan sevilen, ayaklanmalar\u0131 bast\u0131ran ve kentini besleyen bir lider olarak tan\u0131mlayan etkileyici bir stel b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130lgin\u00e7 olan, Thebes\u2019i ki\u015file\u015ftiren tanr\u0131\u00e7an\u0131n sava\u015f silahlar\u0131yla korunma fig\u00fcr\u00fc olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcnmesidir: e\u011fri pala (scimitar), yay ve oklar ta\u015f\u0131yan bir kad\u0131n fig\u00fcr\u00fc. Bu tasvir, kral\u0131 yaln\u0131zca tanr\u0131larla de\u011fil, kentle de \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015ftiren g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir yer ideolojisi<\/strong> yarat\u0131r. Formal \u00f6vg\u00fc dili, hem krallara hem de \u0130lk Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019de yerel krallar gibi h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren b\u00fcy\u00fck sava\u015f beylerine adanm\u0131\u015f daha \u00f6nceki ilahilerden tan\u0131d\u0131k unsurlar ta\u015f\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \ud83d\udd39 Stel, muhtemelen Thebes \u00fczerindeki bir ku\u015fatman\u0131n kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 gibi belirli bir olay\u0131 kutlamak i\u00e7in haz\u0131rlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u2014t\u0131pk\u0131 Kamose\u2019nin stelleri gibi. Kiminle sava\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 net de\u011fil: Hyksoslar, onlar\u0131n M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 vassallar\u0131, yoksa yerel rakip krallar m\u0131? Ancak Donald Redford\u2019un g\u00f6zlemi, Do\u011fu Karnak\u2019ta 17. Hanedan seviyesinden sonra g\u00f6r\u00fclen bir y\u0131k\u0131m tabakas\u0131, bir \u00e7at\u0131\u015fma ya\u015fand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcr\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \ud83d\udee1\ufe0f Krall\u0131k = Komutanl\u0131k<\/strong> Bu d\u00f6nemde krallar\u0131n askeri rol\u00fc iyice \u00f6n plana \u00e7\u0131kar\u2014ordu komutan\u0131 olarak kral\u0131n rol\u00fc, kraliyet litani i\u00e7inde kutsan\u0131r hale gelir. 18. Hanedan\u2019a kadar uzanan ideolojik izler bu noktadan do\u011far.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Thebes: G\u00fcney \u015eehir \u2013 16. ve 17. Hanedanlar\u0131n Ortaya \u00c7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      Ryholt\u2019un Turin Kraliyet Listesi (Turin Canon) \u00fczerine yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131rmaya g\u00f6re, art\u0131k 17. Hanedan krallar\u0131ndan \u00f6nce gelen 15 kral\u0131n (Manetho\u2019nun 16. Hanedan\u0131) isimlerini belirleyebiliyoruz. Bunlardan be\u015fi \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f kaynaklarda ge\u00e7mekte ve bu belgeler onlar\u0131n g\u00fc\u00e7 merkezinin Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir. Hepsinin Thebes\u2019ten h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc kesin olarak s\u00f6yleyemeyiz; baz\u0131lar\u0131 Abydos, Elkab ve Edfu gibi \u00f6nemli kentlerin yerel h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131 olabilir. Wepwawetemsaf adl\u0131 kral, Turin Listesi\u2019nde yer almaz; ancak Abydos\u2019ta m\u00fctevaz\u0131 bir stel b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu stelde, ad\u0131n\u0131 ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 yerel tanr\u0131 Wepwawet\u2019e adak sunarken tasvir edilir. Yaz\u0131m, tasar\u0131m ve kraliyet simgeleri bak\u0131m\u0131ndan bu stel, 13. ile 17. Hanedanlar aras\u0131ndaki geli\u015fim \u00e7izgisine aittir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Thebes\u2019ten kesin olarak y\u00f6netmi\u015f olan Kral Iykernefert Neferhotep, daha etkileyici bir stel b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu stelde kendisini zafer kazanm\u0131\u015f bir kral, ordusunun sevgilisi, kentini besleyen, isyanc\u0131lar\u0131 yenen ve asi yabanc\u0131 topraklar\u0131 bar\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran biri olarak tan\u0131mlar. Neferhotep, Amun ve Montu tanr\u0131lar\u0131 ile Thebes kentini temsil eden ve pala, yay ve oklarla silahlanm\u0131\u015f bir tanr\u0131\u00e7a taraf\u0131ndan korunurken g\u00f6sterilir. Bu bi\u00e7imdeki resmi methiye dili, daha \u00f6nce hem krallar hem de \u0130lk Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019de yerel krallar gibi h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren b\u00fcy\u00fck sava\u015f beyleri i\u00e7in yaz\u0131lan ilahilerden tan\u0131d\u0131k gelmektedir. Bu stel, t\u0131pk\u0131 Kamose\u2019ninki gibi, muhtemelen Thebes \u00fczerindeki bir ku\u015fatman\u0131n kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 gibi belirli bir olay\u0131 kutlamak amac\u0131yla dikilmi\u015fti. Neferhotep\u2019in Hyksoslarla m\u0131, onlar\u0131n M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 yard\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131yla m\u0131, yoksa rakip yerel krallarla m\u0131 sava\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 kesin de\u011fildir; ancak Kanadal\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131rbilimci Donald Redford, Do\u011fu Karnak\u2019\u0131n bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde 17. Hanedan seviyesinden sonra gelen bir y\u0131k\u0131m katman\u0131na dikkat \u00e7ekmi\u015ftir. Neferhotep\u2019in ad\u0131 ayr\u0131ca Elkab ve Gebelein\u2019deki \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f an\u0131tlarda da ge\u00e7er.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Bu belirsiz zamanlarda kral\u0131n ordu komutan\u0131 olarak rol\u00fc giderek daha fazla \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f ve kraliyet ilahilerinde kutsal bir konuma yerle\u015fmi\u015ftir. Bu ideoloji ve kullan\u0131lan baz\u0131 ifadeler, 18. Hanedan\u2019a kadar ya\u015famaya devam etmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        \n
      1. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n ilk kral\u0131 Rahotep, Abydos ve Koptos\u2019taki tap\u0131naklarda yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 restorasyonlarla \u00f6v\u00fcn\u00fcrken, Sobekemsaf II\u2019ye ait bir yaz\u0131t, onun Wadi Hammamat\u2019a 130 ki\u015filik bir ta\u015f oca\u011f\u0131 seferi g\u00f6nderdi\u011fini g\u00f6stermektedir. Ancak bu ta\u015f ocaklar\u0131 zaten Thebes topraklar\u0131 i\u00e7indeydi ve \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan say\u0131s\u0131, 12. Hanedan\u2019da vadiye g\u00f6nderilen binlerce i\u015f\u00e7iye k\u0131yasla olduk\u00e7a azd\u0131. Buna ra\u011fmen, g\u00fcven art\u0131yor; hem kral\u0131n faaliyetleri hem de hakim oldu\u011fu topraklar geni\u015fliyordu. Sobekemsaf\u2019\u0131n seferi olduk\u00e7a \u201cge\u00e7ici\u201d bir nitelik ta\u015f\u0131r: yaln\u0131zca bir ki\u015fi \u201ci\u015flerin g\u00f6zetmeni\u201d unvan\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131r; geri kalanlar ise daha \u00e7ok onursal unvanlar ya da ikmal ile ilgili g\u00f6revlerdeydiler. Yazman, stat\u00fc hiyerar\u015fisine \u00f6zen g\u00f6stermez; listede hiyeroglif ve hiyatik (el yazmas\u0131) i\u015faretleri birlikte kullan\u0131r. G\u00f6r\u00fcnen o ki, geleneksel beceriler ve kurallar, \u00f6nemli bir \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcl\u00fc\u015ften sonra yeniden \u00f6\u011frenilmeye ba\u015flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

        K\u0131z\u0131ldeniz\u2019i g\u00f6ren Gebel Zeit kur\u015fun madenlerinde, 17. Hanedan\u2019dan Nubkheperra Intef VII ve 16. Hanedan\u2019dan Swaserenra Bebiankh d\u00f6nemlerine ait iki m\u00fctevaz\u0131 stel bulunmu\u015ftur. Bebiankh hakk\u0131nda daha \u00f6nce Turin Kraliyet Listesi d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda neredeyse hi\u00e7bir bilgi yoktu. Ayr\u0131ca burada \u00e7ok say\u0131da pan-mezar \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlek par\u00e7as\u0131 da bulunmu\u015ftur; bu da Thebesli krallar\u0131n Nubyal\u0131 paral\u0131 askerleri ba\u015fka ama\u00e7larla da kullanm\u0131\u015f olabilece\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        Thebes, Alt M\u0131s\u0131r ile olan temas\u0131n\u0131 kaybetmi\u015fti ve Memphis\u2019teki yazmanl\u0131k \u00f6\u011frenim merkezlerine eri\u015fimi engellenmi\u015fti. Bu merkezler ve ar\u015fivleri y\u0131k\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u2014hatta Hyksoslar d\u00f6neminde geli\u015fmi\u015f bile olabilirlerdi\u2014fakat Thebesliler bunlara ba\u015fvuram\u0131yordu. Bu durum, \u00f6zellikle \u00f6l\u00fcm rit\u00fcelleri i\u00e7in gerekli olan metinlerin yeniden derlenmesini zorunlu k\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olabilir. \u00d6l\u00fcler Kitab\u0131 olarak bilinen b\u00fcy\u00fc koleksiyonlar\u0131n\u0131n en erken \u00f6rneklerinden biri 16. Hanedan\u2019a aittir; Kral Djehuty\u2019nin e\u015fi Krali\u00e7e Mentuhotep\u2019in tabutundan gelir. Thebes\u2019in cenaze k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc ba\u015fka \u015fekillerde de de\u011fi\u015fime u\u011fram\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: kaynaklar\u0131n azl\u0131\u011f\u0131na tepki olarak, b\u00fcy\u00fck dikd\u00f6rtgen sedir tabutlar\u0131n yerini kaba bi\u00e7imde oyulmu\u015f, \u00e7\u0131nar a\u011fac\u0131ndan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve t\u00fcy deseniyle boyanm\u0131\u015f antropomorf tabutlar alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak tarz \u00f6yle ilkel ve ki\u015fiselle\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir ki, hi\u00e7bir tabut di\u011ferine benzemez. Bu durum, \u00f6nceki kat\u0131 cenaze sanat\u0131 kurallar\u0131n\u0131n art\u0131k uygulanmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve belki de art\u0131k fazla ra\u011fbet g\u00f6rmedi\u011fini g\u00f6sterir. Bununla birlikte, baz\u0131 tabutlar, baz\u0131 Thebesli at\u00f6lyelerde Orta Krall\u0131k geleneklerinin 18. Hanedan\u2019a kadar s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc ortaya koyar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          \n
        1. Hanedan\u2019a ait be\u015f kral mezar\u0131n\u0131n (Nubkheperra Intef VI, Sekhemra Intef, Sobekemsaf II, Seqenenra Taa ve Kamose) konumu, 20. Hanedan d\u00f6nemindeki bir mezar soygunu hakk\u0131nda Thebes belediye ba\u015fkan\u0131nca y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen bir adli soru\u015fturman\u0131n kayd\u0131 olan Abbott Papir\u00fcs\u00fc\u2019nde anlat\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. 1923\u2019te Herbert Winlock, papir\u00fcsteki denetmenlerin yol g\u00fczerg\u00e2h\u0131na dayanarak bu mezarlar\u0131 yeniden bulmak i\u00e7in yola \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. Ayn\u0131 zamanda, 1820\u2019ler ve 1859\u201360\u2019ta yasa d\u0131\u015f\u0131 kaz\u0131lardan gelen ve sat\u0131\u015fa sunulan kraliyet mezarlar\u0131na ait \u00e7ok say\u0131da nesne onu etkilemi\u015fti. 20. Hanedan mezar soyguncular\u0131, Sobekemsaf II\u2019nin mezar\u0131n\u0131 nas\u0131l bulduklar\u0131n\u0131 \u015f\u00f6yle tan\u0131mlam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r:<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
          \n

          \u201cYan\u0131nda bir k\u0131l\u0131\u00e7 vard\u0131 ve bo\u011faz\u0131nda alt\u0131ndan muskalar ve s\u00fcsler bulunuyordu; ba\u015f\u0131nda alt\u0131n bir ta\u00e7 ve alt\u0131n sa\u00e7 bantlar\u0131 vard\u0131\u2026 Kral\u0131n mumyas\u0131 tamamen alt\u0131nla kaplanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Tabutlar\u0131 i\u00e7ten ve d\u0131\u015ftan alt\u0131n ve g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015fle i\u015flenmi\u015fti ve en g\u00fczel, en de\u011ferli ta\u015flarla s\u00fcslenmi\u015fti\u2026 Alt\u0131n, g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f ve bronzdan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f vazolardan olu\u015fan t\u00fcm mezar e\u015fyalar\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ald\u0131k.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

          Bu hanedana ait krallar ve onlar\u0131n g\u00f6revlileri, d\u00f6nemin sonunda artan zenginliklerini mezar yap\u0131lar\u0131ndan ziyade mezarlar\u0131nda yer alan e\u015fyalara harcam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. S\u00fcslemeli mezarlar nadirdir; bunun yerine, daha \u00f6nceki mezarlar s\u0131k\u00e7a ele ge\u00e7irilmi\u015f ve yeniden kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu zenginli\u011fin kayna\u011f\u0131n\u0131 anlamak i\u00e7in g\u00fcneye, Elephantine\u2019a, ikinci Nil \u015felalesini koruyan tahkimatlara ve nihayet Thebes\u2019in yakla\u015f\u0131k 800 kilometre g\u00fcneyindeki Kush Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n ba\u015fkenti olan Kerma\u2019ya bakmam\u0131z gerekmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Elephantine ve \u015eelale Tahkimatlar\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          Elephantine, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz Aswan kentinin kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131ndaki bir ada olup, \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019i incelemek i\u00e7in ilgin\u00e7 bir bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 sunar. Bir ta\u015fra kenti olarak Thebes kaynaklar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 denge olu\u015fturur ve ge\u00e7 12. Hanedan\u2019dan 16. Hanedan\u2019a kadar uzanan kesintisiz bir \u00f6zel ve kraliyet adaklar dizisi sunar. Ayn\u0131 d\u00f6neme ait katmanl\u0131 kent kal\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131 ve mezarl\u0131klar, Alman Arkeoloji Enstit\u00fcs\u00fc taraf\u0131ndan kaz\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Elephantine\u2019in kaderi Nubya ile ayr\u0131lmaz bir bi\u00e7imde ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Orta Krall\u0131k\u2019\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc boyunca g\u00fcney s\u0131n\u0131r konumu ta\u015f\u0131mam\u0131\u015f; bu s\u0131n\u0131r Senusret III taraf\u0131ndan Thebes\u2019in 400 km g\u00fcneyindeki Semna\u2019da belirlenmi\u015fti. Ancak Thebesli krallar\u0131n g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn en d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck seviyesine indi\u011fi d\u00f6nemde Elephantine\u2019in ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z bi\u00e7imde y\u00f6netilmi\u015f olmas\u0131 ve Nubyal\u0131lar\u0131n zaman zaman kente ak\u0131n d\u00fczenlemi\u015f olmalar\u0131 olas\u0131d\u0131r. Ge\u00e7 \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019e ait Kerma\u2019daki bir kraliyet mezar\u0131nda, Senusret I d\u00f6neminde ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f Asyut valisi ve e\u015fine ait heykellerin bulunmas\u0131, Elephantine veya tahkimatlara d\u00fczenlenmi\u015f bir bask\u0131n\u0131n ganimeti olabilece\u011fi y\u00f6n\u00fcnde a\u00e7\u0131klamalarla yorumlan\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 Nubya\u2019n\u0131n de\u011feri, ba\u015fta diorit, granit ve ametist olmak \u00fczere ta\u015f ocaklar\u0131ndan; alt\u0131n ve bak\u0131r madenlerine eri\u015fiminden; ve \u00e7\u00f6l ile nehir g\u00fczerg\u00e2hlar\u0131 \u00fczerindeki stratejik konumundan kaynaklan\u0131r. Elephantine\u2019in 6. Hanedan\u2019a ait yerel g\u00f6revlisi Heqaib, \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden sonra tanr\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve onun kutsal alan\u0131nda bir dizi adak steli ve heykel bulunmu\u015ftur. 13. ila 16. Hanedanlar burada \u00f6zellikle iyi temsil edilmi\u015ftir; Memphis\u2019te oldu\u011fu gibi burada da s\u00fcreklilik yaln\u0131zca 18. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n geli\u015fiyle kesintiye u\u011fram\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Yaz\u0131tlarda kaydedilen soy a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131, ayn\u0131 ailelerin hem ge\u00e7 13. Hanedan krallar\u0131na hem de 16. Hanedan\u2019dakilere hizmet etti\u011fini g\u00f6sterir. Elephantine belediye ba\u015fkan\u0131n\u0131n stat\u00fcs\u00fc, b\u00fcy\u00fck yerel \u00f6neme sahip bir konumdan Thebes kral\u0131n\u0131n refakatindeki askeri bir g\u00f6reve d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bu ki\u015filerden biri Neferhotep\u2019tir; kral ad\u0131na Thebes\u2019ten Elephantine\u2019e kadar olan b\u00f6lgeden sorumluydu. Stelindeki yaz\u0131m bi\u00e7iminden anla\u015f\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00fczere onun d\u00f6neminden sonra (muhtemelen 16. Hanedan), Heqaib kutsal alan\u0131ndaki adaklar sona ermi\u015ftir. Bu da, Kush Prensi\u2019nin en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc oldu\u011fu ve hatta \u015felale tahkimatlar\u0131n\u0131n onun denetimine ge\u00e7ti\u011fi d\u00f6neme denk geliyor olabilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Buhen Kalesi\u2019nin Kaderi: Nubya\u2019dan Thebes\u2019e Uzanan \u0130ktidar Dalgalanmas\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          Buhen kalelerinden birinin (Buhen) tarihi, hen\u00fcz tamamen yay\u0131mlanmam\u0131\u015f olan verilerden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131labilir. Ge\u00e7 12. Hanedan sonras\u0131nda, askerler aileleriyle birlikte Buhen\u2019deki K Mezarl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019na g\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr; bu g\u00f6m\u00fclerde Memfis b\u00f6lgesine ait \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlekler bulunmu\u015ftur ve bu da kalenin erzaklar\u0131n\u0131n h\u00e2l\u00e2 saray\u0131n \u00fcretim at\u00f6lyelerinden geldi\u011fini do\u011frular. K Mezarl\u0131\u011f\u0131, \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019e olduk\u00e7a ileri bir a\u015famaya kadar s\u00fcrekli kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; Tell el-Yahudiya tarz\u0131 testileri i\u00e7eren, bozulmam\u0131\u015f \u00e7oklu g\u00f6m\u00fc gruplar\u0131ndan en az ikisi burada mevcuttur. Bunlardan biri, Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da ancak E\/i tabakas\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclen (muhtemelen erken 15. Hanedan) bir testiye sahiptir. Mezarlardan birinde bir cesedin boynunda b\u00fcy\u00fck bir alt\u0131n k\u00fcl\u00e7esi bulunmu\u015ftur; bu da yerle\u015fimcilerin Buhen\u2019de kalmay\u0131, b\u00f6lgenin alt\u0131n madenlerine yak\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131 nedeniyle tercih etti\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Bu d\u00f6nemde Yukar\u0131 ve A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r aras\u0131ndaki s\u0131n\u0131r belirginle\u015fmi\u015fti, bu y\u00fczden Buhen\u2019e A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019dan erzak ancak vahalar \u00fczerinden ula\u015fabilmi\u015f olmal\u0131yd\u0131\u2014bu rotan\u0131n Kral Apepi d\u00f6neminde kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinmektedir. Peki, kuzey ucunda bu ticareti kim organize ediyordu? Hyksos kral\u0131 y\u00f6netimindeki Itjtawy\u2019de h\u00e2l\u00e2 g\u00f6revlilerin \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 varsayabiliriz ve Lisht mezarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n h\u00e2l\u00e2 kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinmektedir. Tell el-Yahudiya testilerinin \u00fcretimi ve da\u011f\u0131t\u0131m\u0131 merkezi Avaris\u2019ti; i\u00e7eri\u011fi hen\u00fcz tan\u0131mlanamam\u0131\u015f olsa da bu kaplar olduk\u00e7a de\u011ferliydi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Kale yerle\u015fimcileri, Alt M\u0131s\u0131r ile ba\u011flant\u0131lar\u0131na ra\u011fmen giderek daha fazla izole ve savunmas\u0131z hissediyor olmal\u0131yd\u0131lar; bu nedenle kendilerini yerel askeri g\u00fcce uyarlamalar\u0131 gerekmi\u015ftir. Bu g\u00fc\u00e7, ne Hyksoslar ne de Thebes krallar\u0131yd\u0131; Kush kral\u0131yd\u0131. Be\u015f ku\u015fakl\u0131k bir aile Buhen\u2019de yaz\u0131tlar b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve bu yaz\u0131tlar son iki ku\u015fa\u011f\u0131n Kush kral\u0131na hizmet etti\u011fini, hatta onun ad\u0131na yerel askeri seferler d\u00fczenledi\u011fini g\u00f6sterir. Bu d\u00f6nemin arkeolojik olarak ay\u0131rt edici \u00f6zelli\u011fi, Alt M\u0131s\u0131r \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mle\u011fi yerine Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r, \u00f6zellikle Thebes b\u00f6lgesinden ithal edilen kaplar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. Nehir Thebes ile kaleler aras\u0131nda a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131 ama ancak\u2014Kamose metinlerinin ima etti\u011fi gibi\u2014g\u00fcney Nil\u2019in efendisi olan Kush kral\u0131na vergi \u00f6denirse.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Buhen sonunda ya\u011fmalanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (b\u00fcy\u00fck bir yang\u0131na ait izler vard\u0131r), ancak muhtemelen Nubyal\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan de\u011fil, Kamose\u2019nin ordusu taraf\u0131ndan ele ge\u00e7irilmi\u015ftir. Di\u011fer kaleler, Mirgissa ve Askut, \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019in sonuna kadar M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar ve Nubyal\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan birlikte kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Sonunda Kerma kral\u0131n\u0131n \u015felale b\u00f6lgesindeki denetimi Thebesli y\u00f6neticiler i\u00e7in katlan\u0131lmaz hale gelmi\u015f ve Hyksoslara g\u00fcvenli bi\u00e7imde kar\u015f\u0131 koyabilmek i\u00e7in kaleleri yeniden ele ge\u00e7irmek zorunda kalm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Kamose\u2019nin h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc y\u0131l\u0131nda, b\u00f6lgenin tekrar Thebes kontrol\u00fcnde oldu\u011funa dair ilk kan\u0131t mevcuttur. Buhen\u2019de bir duvar\u0131n in\u015fas\u0131 kaydedilmi\u015ftir; bu muhtemelen Hyksos kral\u0131 Apepi\u2019nin Kush kral\u0131na g\u00f6nderdi\u011fi mektupta bahsedilen ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 sefer sonras\u0131nda tahkimatlar\u0131n yenilenmesidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Kush Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          “Kush Kral\u0131” ifadesi, ba\u015fkenti Kerma olan kral\u0131 tan\u0131mlamak i\u00e7in M\u0131s\u0131r kaynaklar\u0131nda kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Arkeologlar, Kush halk\u0131n\u0131n k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc tan\u0131mlamak ve onu C grubu ve pan-mezar gibi \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f Nubya k\u00fclt\u00fcrlerinden ay\u0131rmak amac\u0131yla “Kerma” terimini s\u0131fat olarak kullan\u0131rlar. Kerma, \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc \u015felalenin g\u00fcneyinde, bat\u0131 vaha yollar\u0131n\u0131n son noktas\u0131nda yer al\u0131r ve Cenevre \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nden Charles Bonnet taraf\u0131ndan kaz\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Kerma halk\u0131 yaz\u0131l\u0131 kay\u0131t tutmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r, ancak Nubya\u2019n\u0131n \u00e7e\u015fitli yerlerinde bulunan k\u00fclt\u00fcrleri Eski Krall\u0131k\u2019\u0131n erken d\u00f6nemlerine kadar uzan\u0131r. Kush kral\u0131, g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn zirvesine \u201cKlasik Kerma evresi\u201d s\u0131ras\u0131nda ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u2014bu d\u00f6nem yakla\u015f\u0131k olarak \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019e denk gelir. Kamose Buhen\u2019i geri almay\u0131 ba\u015farm\u0131\u015f olabilir; fakat Kerma\u2019n\u0131n fethedilmesi ancak 18. Hanedan\u2019da, en az \u00fc\u00e7 uzun seferden sonra ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015ftir. Ard\u0131ndan gelen y\u0131k\u0131m \u00f6yle kapsaml\u0131 olmu\u015ftur ki, son ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z krallar\u0131n saltanat\u0131 d\u00f6neminde Kerma \u015fehrinin nas\u0131l g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc yeniden in\u015fa etmek bug\u00fcn olduk\u00e7a zordur. Kesin olarak bilinen ise, kral mezarlar\u0131n\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck t\u00fcm\u00fcl\u00fcslerinde katledilmi\u015f hizmetk\u00e2rlar ve \u00e7o\u011fu Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019dan ithal edilmi\u015f b\u00fcy\u00fck erzak stoklar\u0131n\u0131n bulunmas\u0131d\u0131r\u2014bunlar, Elephantine\u2019i ge\u00e7ip g\u00fcneye ilerlemek isteyenlerin \u00f6dedi\u011fi vergiler olabilir. 17. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n en az\u0131ndan ortalar\u0131na kadar, kral\u0131n hem Yukar\u0131 hem A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019la ticaret y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bilinmektedir ve bu ticaretin muhtemelen \u015felale tahkimatlar\u0131 arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Kerma Nubyal\u0131lar\u0131 s\u0131\u011f\u0131r yeti\u015ftiricisi ve sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lard\u0131; \u00f6zellikle ok\u00e7uluklar\u0131yla \u00fcnl\u00fcyd\u00fcler. Mezarlar\u0131nda bulunan yay ve oklar ile Buhen\u2019deki ok\u00e7ulara kar\u015f\u0131 savunma amac\u0131yla in\u015fa edilen b\u00fcy\u00fck tahkimatlar bu \u00fcnlerini do\u011frular. \u015eehrin merkezinde, \u00e7evresi parmakl\u0131kla \u00e7evrili b\u00fcy\u00fck bir yuvarlak kul\u00fcbe yer al\u0131rd\u0131; bu yap\u0131, kraliyet t\u00f6renlerinde kullan\u0131l\u0131rd\u0131. Ayr\u0131ca b\u00fcy\u00fck kutsal alanlar ve y\u00f6netim binalar\u0131 da mevcuttu. Klasik Kerma evresi s\u0131ras\u0131nda y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen geni\u015f \u00e7apl\u0131 yap\u0131 ve yeniden in\u015fa program\u0131, kral\u0131n emrindeki muazzam malzeme ve insan g\u00fcc\u00fc kaynaklar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Kamose ve Ahmose\u2019nin ordular\u0131nda Kerma Nubyal\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lmazd\u0131r; ancak bu askerlerin g\u00f6n\u00fcll\u00fc m\u00fc yoksa Kamose\u2019nin seferi s\u0131ras\u0131nda zorla m\u0131 al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131 belli de\u011fildir. G\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015fe g\u00f6re Kerma Nubyal\u0131lar\u0131, Kerma kral\u0131n\u0131n otoritesini ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Thebes krallar\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131k politikas\u0131n\u0131 her zaman kabul etmeyen kabilelerden olu\u015fan bir federasyondu. Ne olursa olsun, kral\u0131n politikas\u0131 ne y\u00f6nde olursa olsun, ge\u00e7 \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem boyunca Kerma ve Thebes aras\u0131nda ticaret geli\u015fmi\u015ftir. Mal kadar insanlar da seyahat etmi\u015ftir: belki M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 zanaatk\u00e2rlar Kerma\u2019ya gitmi\u015f, kesin olarak da Kerma Nubyal\u0131lar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a gelmi\u015ftir. Thebes ve Abydos aras\u0131nda da\u011f\u0131n\u0131k bi\u00e7imde yerle\u015fmi\u015f birka\u00e7 bireyin g\u00f6m\u00fcs\u00fc bulunmu\u015ftur. Thebes\u2019te bulunmu\u015f, bozulmam\u0131\u015f bir zengin g\u00f6m\u00fc, Kamose d\u00f6nemine aittir ve bir kad\u0131n ile k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7ocu\u011funa aittir. Mezarl\u0131k tamamen M\u0131s\u0131r tarz\u0131ndad\u0131r ve kad\u0131n\u0131n boynunda kraliyet hediyesi olan \u201conur alt\u0131n\u0131\u201d\u2014\u00e7ok say\u0131da k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck alt\u0131n halka boncuktan olu\u015fan bir kolye\u2014tak\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Tabutunun yan\u0131nda, alt\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6mlek bardak i\u00e7eren a\u011flar as\u0131l\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131ma sopas\u0131 bulunmu\u015ftur; bu bardaklar, Kerma k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcne \u00f6zg\u00fc bi\u00e7imleri nedeniyle \u201cKerma serami\u011fi\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. Alt\u0131n, Thebesliler ile Kerma Nubyal\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nce m\u00fcttefik olarak bir araya getirmi\u015ftir\u2014fakat sonunda ve ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz bi\u00e7imde onlar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015fman haline getirmi\u015ftir<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Avaris ve Thebes Sava\u015f\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          Sava\u015f\u0131n sahnesi haz\u0131rlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Thebesli krallar kendi b\u00f6lgelerinde h\u00e2kimiyeti sa\u011flam\u0131\u015flard\u0131; Kamose, Buhen\u2019i geri alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u2014b\u00f6ylece alt\u0131n madenlerine giden g\u00fczerg\u00e2h art\u0131k ona a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131; Kerma Nubyal\u0131lar\u0131 g\u00fcneye s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc ve bir sava\u015f filosu haz\u0131r hale getirilmi\u015fti. Kamose bunu \u015f\u00f6yle ifade eder:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          \n

          \u201cOnunla \u00e7arp\u0131\u015faca\u011f\u0131m ki karn\u0131n\u0131 de\u015feyim; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc arzum M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 kurtarmak ve Asyatikleri kovmakt\u0131r.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

          Sava\u015fla ilgili yaz\u0131l\u0131 kaynaklar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu Thebes taraf\u0131na aittir ve tahmin edilece\u011fi gibi, Thebeslileri hem daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc hem de daha sald\u0131rgan taraf olarak g\u00f6sterir. Sava\u015f en az otuz y\u0131l s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f olmal\u0131, zira Ahmose\u2019nin babas\u0131 Seqenenra Taa\u2019n\u0131n Hyksoslarla sava\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 biliyoruz; ancak Avaris ancak Ahmose\u2019nin h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n 18 ile 22. y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ele ge\u00e7irilmi\u015ftir. \u015eehrin ya\u011fmalanmas\u0131ndan sonra\u2014bu hemen olmu\u015f olabilir ya da zamanla\u2014Ahmose ordusunu Filistin\u2019e g\u00f6t\u00fcrerek, Gazze yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda yer alan Sharuhen\u2019de \u00fc\u00e7 y\u0131l s\u00fcren bir ku\u015fatmayla sonu\u00e7lanan bir sefer ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. Genellikle Sharuhen\u2019in Hyksos kral\u0131n\u0131n son kalesi oldu\u011fu varsay\u0131l\u0131r; fakat kaynaklar bu konuda sessizdir. Sava\u015f aral\u0131ks\u0131z s\u00fcrmemi\u015ftir: seferler k\u0131sa ve ordular modern \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclere g\u00f6re k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fckt\u00fcr. Elkab\u2019da kaya mezar\u0131na g\u00f6m\u00fclen \u00f6nemli bir asker\u00ee g\u00f6revli olan Ibana\u2019n\u0131n o\u011flu Ahmose, Avaris \u00e7evresinde iki adam \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fcp birini yakalad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7arp\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 anlat\u0131r; bu eylemleri, kraldan alt\u0131nla \u00f6d\u00fcllendirilmesini sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Bilinen ilk \u00e7at\u0131\u015fma Seqenenra Taa d\u00f6neminde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015ftir (art\u0131k bu kral\u0131n Senakhtenra Taa ile ayn\u0131 ki\u015fi oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir). M\u00d6 19. Hanedan\u2019dan Merenptah d\u00f6nemine (1213\u20131203) ait ve yakla\u015f\u0131k 350 y\u0131l sonra yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir papir\u00fcs, Seqenenra ile Apepi aras\u0131ndaki bir anla\u015fmazl\u0131\u011fa dair hik\u00e2yenin par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131 korur. Hik\u00e2ye, Apepi\u2019nin Thebes\u2019teki su ayg\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131n k\u00fckremesinin uykusunu ka\u00e7\u0131rmas\u0131ndan yak\u0131nmas\u0131yla ba\u015flar. Seqenenra \u201cG\u00fcney \u015eehrinin Prensi\u201d olarak tan\u0131mlan\u0131rken, Apepi \u201cKral\u201d (nesu) olarak tan\u0131mlan\u0131r ve t\u00fcm M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n ona hara\u00e7 \u00f6dedi\u011fi s\u00f6ylenir. Hik\u00e2ye, Seqenenra\u2019n\u0131n dan\u0131\u015fmanlar\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7a\u011f\u0131rmas\u0131yla yar\u0131m kal\u0131r; fakat anlat\u0131 yap\u0131s\u0131 Kamose metinlerine \u00e7ok benzedi\u011fi i\u00e7in, bunun bir sava\u015f\u0131n \u00f6ns\u00f6z\u00fc oldu\u011fu izlenimini vermektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Avaris ve Thebes Sava\u015f\u0131<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          Ballas\u2019taki \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mlekler aras\u0131nda \u00f6zellikle yemek pi\u015firme ve saklama amac\u0131yla kullan\u0131lan \u00e7ok say\u0131da Kerma serami\u011fi vard\u0131. Bu durum, Kerma Nubyal\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n orada M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131larla birlikte ve olduk\u00e7a b\u00fcy\u00fck say\u0131larda ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131na \u015f\u00fcphe b\u0131rakmamaktad\u0131r. Yerle\u015fimin uzak ve bilin\u00e7li bi\u00e7imde kurulmu\u015f olmas\u0131, buran\u0131n asker\u00ee ama\u00e7l\u0131 oldu\u011funu\u2014belki i\u00e7inde b\u00fcy\u00fck say\u0131da Kerma Nubyal\u0131dan olu\u015fan bir ordunun toplanmas\u0131 i\u00e7in kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131\u2014g\u00f6steriyor.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Kral Seqenenra\u2019n\u0131n mumyas\u0131n\u0131n incelenmesi, onun \u015fiddet yoluyla \u00f6ld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc ortaya koymaktad\u0131r. Aln\u0131nda yatay bir balta yaras\u0131, elmac\u0131k kemi\u011fi k\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve ensesinde bir han\u00e7er saplanmas\u0131n\u0131n izleri vard\u0131r. Aln\u0131ndaki yaran\u0131n \u015feklinin, yaln\u0131zca Orta Tun\u00e7 \u00c7a\u011f\u0131\u2019na ait\u2014Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da bulunanlara benzer\u2014bir balta ile olu\u015fturulabilece\u011fi ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Ballas\u2019taki saray duvarlar\u0131nda tasvir edilen M\u0131s\u0131r baltalar\u0131n\u0131n bi\u00e7imi ise farkl\u0131d\u0131r. Bu, Seqenenra d\u00f6neminde Hyksoslara kar\u015f\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck bir sava\u015f ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fini ve kral\u0131n bu sava\u015fta vah\u015fice \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6steren en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc kan\u0131tlardan biridir. Han\u00e7er darbesinin a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131na bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, kral\u0131n darbe s\u0131ras\u0131nda yere yat\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Kamose, Seqenenra Taa\u2019n\u0131n ard\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Genellikle onun kral\u0131n o\u011flu ve Ahmose\u2019un a\u011fabeyi oldu\u011fu s\u00f6ylenir, ancak kimli\u011fi kesin de\u011fildir ve tabutunda kraliyet simgesi olan \u201curaeus\u201d bulunmamaktad\u0131r. Kamose\u2019nin h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair yaln\u0131zca \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc y\u0131l\u0131 belgelenmi\u015ftir; Karnak\u2019taki steller ve Buhen\u2019deki yaz\u0131t bu y\u0131l\u0131n tan\u0131klar\u0131d\u0131r. Hem Buhen\u2019e hem Avaris\u2019e yap\u0131lan seferler bu y\u0131lda ya da \u00f6ncesinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015f olup Buhen seferi \u00f6nce gelmektedir. Kamose bir sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131d\u0131r\u2014\u201cCesur Kamose\u201d en s\u0131k kullan\u0131lan lakaplar\u0131ndan biridir\u2014fakat b\u00fcy\u00fck olas\u0131l\u0131kla \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc y\u0131ldan sonra k\u0131sa s\u00fcrede \u00f6lm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Buna ra\u011fmen, Seqenenra Taa ile ili\u015fkili cenaze k\u00fclt\u00fc Ramessid d\u00f6nemine kadar ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f ve Karnak\u2019taki stellerinden en az biri \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden 200 y\u0131l sonra h\u00e2l\u00e2 ayaktayd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Kamose stelleri ve bir Thebes mezar\u0131nda bulunan yakla\u015f\u0131k \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f bir yaz\u0131 tableti arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla Avaris seferi yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131r\u0131labilir. Abart\u0131l\u0131 s\u00f6ylemler bir kenara b\u0131rak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, bu sefer nihai bir sald\u0131r\u0131 olmaktan \u00e7ok bir bask\u0131n niteli\u011findedir\u2014\u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Avaris\u2019in nihai y\u0131k\u0131m\u0131 yakla\u015f\u0131k yirmi y\u0131l sonra ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015ftir ve Kamose\u2019un rakibi, Hyksoslar\u0131n en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ve en uzun \u00f6m\u00fcrl\u00fc kral\u0131 olan Aauserra Apepi idi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Kamose, ordusu ve sava\u015f filosuyla Thebes\u2019ten kuzeye do\u011fru hareket etmi\u015f; d\u00fc\u015fman garnizonlar\u0131n\u0131n konumlar\u0131n\u0131 ke\u015ffetmeleri i\u00e7in Nubyal\u0131 izcileri \u00f6nden g\u00f6ndermi\u015ftir. Cusae\u2019nin kuzeyindeki Nefrusi\u2019nin ya\u011fmalan\u0131\u015f\u0131 ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bi\u00e7imde anlat\u0131l\u0131r:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          \n

          \u201cOrdumun onlar\u0131n hizmetk\u00e2rlar\u0131, s\u0131\u011f\u0131rlar\u0131, s\u00fct\u00fc, ya\u011f\u0131 ve bal\u0131 \u00fczerindeki hali, av\u0131n\u0131 par\u00e7alayan aslanlar gibiydi; mallar\u0131n\u0131 ne\u015fe i\u00e7inde payla\u015ft\u0131lar.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

          Kuzeye ilerlemeye devam ederken Kamose, Sako\u2019da (el-Qes) Apepi taraf\u0131ndan Kush kral\u0131na g\u00f6nderilmi\u015f bir haberciyi yakalam\u0131\u015f ve bunun \u00fczerine ileti\u015fimi kesmek ve \u201carkamda hi\u00e7bir d\u00fc\u015fman kalmamas\u0131 i\u00e7in\u201d Bahariya Vahas\u0131\u2019na asker g\u00f6ndermi\u015ftir. Ard\u0131ndan anlat\u0131da bir bo\u015fluk vard\u0131r ve Kamose Avaris\u2019e ula\u015f\u0131r. Burada filosunu kentin \u00e7evresindeki su yollar\u0131na yerle\u015ftirerek bir abluka olu\u015fturur; kar\u015f\u0131 sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131 \u00f6nlemek i\u00e7in k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131 denetler. Saray kad\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n kalenin i\u00e7inden M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lara bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u201cdeliklerinden \u00e7\u0131kan gen\u00e7 kertenkeleler gibi\u201d betimler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Sonra gelen, Apepi\u2019ye hitaben yap\u0131lan geleneksel g\u00f6steri\u015fli konu\u015fmad\u0131r:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          \n

          \u201cBak, senin ba\u011flar\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131kan \u015farab\u0131 i\u00e7iyorum\u2026 \u0130kametg\u00e2h\u0131n\u0131 par\u00e7al\u0131yorum, a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 kesiyorum.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

          Ve ard\u0131ndan yan\u0131nda g\u00f6t\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ganimetlerin listesi gelir. G\u00f6rkemli s\u00f6zlerine ra\u011fmen, Avaris\u2019e do\u011frudan sald\u0131r\u0131lmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve Apepi\u2019nin \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmaya girmeyi reddetti\u011fi anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Kamose metinleri kral\u0131n ne\u015feyle d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyle sona erer:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          \n

          \u201cHer y\u00fcz ayd\u0131nl\u0131kt\u0131, \u00fclke refah i\u00e7indeydi, nehir k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131 heyecanl\u0131yd\u0131 ve Thebes bayramdayd\u0131.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

          Hyksoslara kar\u015f\u0131 Kamose taraf\u0131ndan d\u00fczenlenen seferin ne kadar zarar verdi\u011fini bug\u00fcnden de\u011ferlendirmek zordur. Ancak t\u00fcm ba\u015far\u0131lar\u0131 halefi taraf\u0131ndan tekrarlanmak zorunda kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Amiral Ahmose, \u0130bana\u2019n\u0131n o\u011flu, kendi yaz\u0131t\u0131nda Kamose\u2019dan hi\u00e7 bahsetmez, oysa hem babas\u0131 hem kendisi s\u0131ras\u0131yla Seqenenra Taa ve Ahmose\u2019un donanmas\u0131nda g\u00f6rev alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Thebeli ordular bu zaferi hemen izlemedi ve Ahmose komutas\u0131ndaki ordunun tekrar kuzeye do\u011fru ilerlemeye ba\u015flamas\u0131 en az on bir y\u0131l s\u00fcrd\u00fc. Bu duraksaman\u0131n nedeni Kamose ve rakibi Aauserra Apepi\u2019nin \u00f6lmesidir. Yerlerine s\u0131ras\u0131yla Ahmose ve Khamudi ge\u00e7ti. Ahmose tahta ge\u00e7ti\u011finde k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir \u00e7ocuktu ve krall\u0131k, krali\u00e7e anne Ahhotep taraf\u0131ndan y\u00f6netildi. Ona \u00f6zg\u00fc unvanlar verildi: \u201cM\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a \u00f6zen g\u00f6steren; askerlerine sahip \u00e7\u0131kan… ka\u00e7anlar\u0131n\u0131 geri getirmi\u015f, firarileri toplam\u0131\u015f; Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131 yat\u0131\u015ft\u0131rm\u0131\u015f ve isyanc\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 kovmu\u015f.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Sava\u015f\u0131n son a\u015famas\u0131, kimli\u011fi bilinmeyen bir kral\u0131n (baz\u0131lar\u0131 Ahmose, baz\u0131lar\u0131 Khamudi olarak tan\u0131mlar) on birinci y\u0131l\u0131na aittir. Kan\u0131tlar, Rhind Matematik Papir\u00fcs\u00fc\u2019n\u00fcn arka y\u00fcz\u00fcndeki par\u00e7al\u0131 notlard\u0131r. Papir\u00fcs\u00fcn \u00f6n y\u00fcz\u00fc Aauserra Apepi\u2019nin 33. y\u0131l\u0131nda kopyalanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve olaylar Hyksos kral\u0131n\u0131n y\u0131llar\u0131na g\u00f6re tarihlendirildi\u011fi i\u00e7in belki Memphis’te yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olabilir. Arka y\u00fczde \u015fu notlar bulunur: \u201cH\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131k y\u0131l\u0131 n, Shemu\u2019nun ikinci ay\u0131 \u2014 Heliopolis\u2019e girildi; Akhet\u2019in ilk ay\u0131, 23. g\u00fcn \u2014 bu g\u00fcneyli prens Tjaru\u2019ya girdi. 25. g\u00fcn \u2014 Tjaru\u2019nun ele ge\u00e7irildi\u011fi s\u00f6ylendi.\u201d Tjaru muhtemelen Tell el-Habua\u2019daki kale yerle\u015fimidir ve yazar\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne g\u00f6re \u201cg\u00fcneyli prens\u201d Ahmose\u2019dur, y\u0131l ise Turin Krall\u0131k Listesi\u2019nde ad\u0131 ge\u00e7en fakat y\u0131l\u0131 belirtilmeyen Khamudi\u2019ye aittir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Ahmose\u2019un stratejisi, Memphis\u2019i atlay\u0131p \u00f6nce Heliopolis\u2019i almak, sonra su seviyesi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcp sava\u015f arabalar\u0131 tekrar hareket edebildi\u011finde Ekim ortas\u0131nda Tell el-Habua\u2019ya sald\u0131rmak \u015feklindeydi. Bu, Hyksoslar\u0131n Sina \u00fczerinden Filistin\u2019e ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 engellemi\u015f oldu. Avaris ku\u015fatmas\u0131 bundan sonra ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Kampanya hakk\u0131nda \u00fc\u00e7 \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f kaynak vard\u0131r: Amiral Ahmose\u2019un biyografisi, Tell el-Dab’a\u2019daki arkeolojik kan\u0131tlar ve Ahmose\u2019un Abydos\u2019taki tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131nda bulunan kabartma par\u00e7alar\u0131. Amiral Ahmose, do\u011fal olarak kendi rol\u00fcne odaklan\u0131r; anlat\u0131m\u0131 Kamose metinlerindeki abart\u0131dan uzakt\u0131r. Abydos kabartmalar\u0131 (1993\u2019te ke\u015ffedildi) bize sava\u015f arabalar\u0131 ve atlar, kraliyet donanmas\u0131, ekinleri bi\u00e7en askerler, iplerle ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015f Hyksos esirleri, kalkanl\u0131 sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar gibi sahneleri sunar. Kabartma, kral\u0131n Suriye ve Filistin\u2019deki daha sonraki seferlerine dair b\u00f6l\u00fcmler i\u00e7erebilir, fakat merkezdeki anlat\u0131 Avaris ku\u015fatmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Ahmose bir\u00e7ok \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 anlat\u0131r ve ku\u015fatma ile ya\u011fmalama aras\u0131ndaki s\u00fcrenin ne kadar s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bilinmedi\u011finden anlat\u0131m birka\u00e7 y\u0131l\u0131 kapsayabilir. D\u00fcz anlat\u0131m tarz\u0131 olaylar\u0131n kronolojik s\u0131rayla verildi\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcr\u00fcr. Bu s\u0131raya g\u00f6re olaylar \u015f\u00f6yle geli\u015fmi\u015ftir: Amiral Ahmose \u201cKuzeyli\u201d adl\u0131 gemide (belki de kral\u0131n gemisi) g\u00f6rev alarak Avaris\u2019e var\u0131r. Sava\u015f sonras\u0131nda kral ku\u015fatmaya ba\u015flar. Ku\u015fatma devam ederken ordu \u00e7evreyi yat\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131r. Ahmose, \u201cMemphis\u2019te Do\u011fan\u201d adl\u0131 yeni gemiye atan\u0131r ve Avaris sular\u0131nda d\u00fc\u015fman \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fcr. \u0130ki \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmada daha yer al\u0131r: biri \u201cayn\u0131 yerde\u201d (muhtemelen Avaris), di\u011feri \u015fehrin g\u00fcneyindedir. Bu \u00e7arp\u0131\u015fmalardan sonra \u015f\u00f6yle der: \u201cAvaris ya\u011fmaland\u0131 ve oradan ganimet getirdim: bir adam, \u00fc\u00e7 kad\u0131n… majestenin onlar\u0131 bana k\u00f6le olarak verdi.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Yahudi tarih\u00e7i Josephus, Hyksoslar\u0131 Kud\u00fcs\u2019\u00fcn kurucusu sayd\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in Manetho\u2019nun anlat\u0131m\u0131nda Ahmose\u2019un onlar\u0131 s\u00fcrmesinden sonraki olaylar ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bi\u00e7imde yer al\u0131r. Avaris ku\u015fatmas\u0131 hakk\u0131nda \u015f\u00f6yle der: \u201cOnlar [Hyksoslar], t\u00fcm mallar\u0131n\u0131 ve ganimetlerini korumak i\u00e7in Avaris\u2019i y\u00fcksek duvarlarla \u00e7evirdiler. M\u0131s\u0131r kral\u0131 480.000 ki\u015filik orduyla onlar\u0131 ku\u015fatarak teslim olmaya zorlad\u0131. Nihayet ku\u015fatmay\u0131 umutsuzluk i\u00e7inde b\u0131rak\u0131p bir antla\u015fma yapt\u0131 ve hepsi M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019dan ayr\u0131ld\u0131.\u201d Avaris\u2019teki veriler bu toplu \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131 do\u011fruluyor; 18. Hanedan\u2019a ait tabakalarda yeni seramik t\u00fcrleri g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor ve karma k\u00fclt\u00fcre ait izler kayboluyor.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Tell el-Dab’a\u2019da Hyksoslar\u0131n son d\u00f6nemi b\u00fcy\u00fck kentle\u015fme ve savunma yap\u0131lar\u0131yla belirginle\u015fir. Bunlar muhtemelen Khamudi\u2019nin ilk y\u0131llar\u0131nda in\u015fa edildi ama yeterli olmad\u0131. Ma\u011flubiyetin a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131 belki \u015fu ayr\u0131nt\u0131da yat\u0131yor: D\/3 tabakas\u0131ndaki sava\u015f baltalar\u0131 ve han\u00e7erler saf bak\u0131rdand\u0131r; daha \u00f6nceki katmanlardaki silahlar ise kalay bronzundan yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u2014ki bu \u00e7ok daha keskin bir kesim sa\u011flar. Kalay tedari\u011finde kesinti olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, silahlar\u0131n art\u0131k sadece stat\u00fc sembol\u00fc olarak kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve ger\u00e7ek sava\u015f i\u015flevini yitirdi\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. Oysa Thebes b\u00f6lgesindeki silahlar h\u00e2l\u00e2 kalay bronzuydu; bu da yak\u0131n sava\u015fta onlara \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f olabilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Genellikle Hyksoslar\u0131n M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a at ve sava\u015f arabas\u0131n\u0131 tan\u0131tt\u0131klar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcr. Orta Krall\u0131k\u2019ta bu konuda somut veri yoktur; ancak 18. Hanedan ba\u015f\u0131nda hem vard\u0131r. Tell el-Dab’a\u2019da sava\u015f arabalar\u0131 yoktur; at kemiklerine dair veriler de net de\u011fildir. Ancak Tell el-Habua\u2019da \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem\u2019e ait bir tabakada tam bir at iskeleti bulunmu\u015ftur. Kamose metinlerinde d\u00fc\u015fman atlar\u0131 ve sava\u015f arabalar\u0131 ganimet olarak ge\u00e7er\u2014bu, onlar\u0131n Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a giri\u015fini a\u00e7\u0131klayabilir. Hem atlar hem sava\u015f arabalar\u0131, Abydos kabartmalar\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr; arabalar ilkel de\u011fil, II. Tuthmose\u2019un mezar tap\u0131na\u011f\u0131ndaki \u00f6rneklerle birebir ayn\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Hyksoslar yenilmi\u015f olsa da Krali\u00e7e Hat\u015fepsut\u2019un \u201ctanr\u0131lar\u0131n i\u011fren\u00e7li\u011fini kovdum, yery\u00fcz\u00fc onlar\u0131n izini sildi\u201d s\u00f6z\u00fc, Tell el-Dab’a\u2019da Bietak ve ekibinin titiz \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131yla yanl\u0131\u015flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          \u0130ki Toprak\u2019\u0131n Ahmose D\u00f6neminde Yeniden Birle\u015ftirilmesi \u2013 T\u00fcrk\u00e7e D\u00fcz \u00c7eviri<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          Avaris\u2019in ya\u011fmalanmas\u0131, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n birli\u011fini sa\u011flamak i\u00e7in gerekli olan seferler dizisinin yaln\u0131zca ilk ad\u0131m\u0131yd\u0131. Olaylar\u0131n s\u0131ralamas\u0131 \u00fczerinde tam bir g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f birli\u011fi bulunmasa da, Amiral Ahmose, \u0130bana’n\u0131n o\u011flu anlat\u0131s\u0131na g\u00f6re Avaris seferinden sonra G\u00fcney Filistin\u2019e yap\u0131lan bir sefer ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015ftir ve bu sefer s\u0131ras\u0131nda Sharuhen ele ge\u00e7irilmi\u015ftir. Hyksoslar\u0131n kal\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 yok etmek mi yoksa onlar\u0131n ard\u0131nda b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bo\u015fluktan yararlanarak Filistin\u2019e ve hatta L\u00fcbnan\u2019a kadar ilerlemek mi ama\u00e7land\u0131, bunu bilmiyoruz. Daha sonraki kaynaklar L\u00fcbnan sedirlerinin ve ‘Fenekhu’ \u00f6k\u00fczlerinin ithal edilmesinden bahseder; bu son terimin Fenike\u2019ye g\u00f6nderme yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Ahmose, \u0130bana’n\u0131n o\u011flu anlat\u0131s\u0131na \u015f\u00f6yle devam eder: \u201cMajesteleri Asya\u2019n\u0131n g\u00f6\u00e7ebelerini \u00f6ld\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde g\u00fcneye, \u0130kinci Cataract\u2019\u0131n alt\u0131ndaki Khent-hen-nefer\u2019e yelken a\u00e7t\u0131 ve Nubyal\u0131 ok\u00e7ular\u0131 yok etti.\u201d Kral Ahmose\u2019un Buhen \u00fczerindeki M\u0131s\u0131r kontrol\u00fcn\u00fc yeniden sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair bir do\u011frulama mevcuttur; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bir kap\u0131 pervaz\u0131nda o ve annesi Min\u2019e ve Buhen\u2019in Horus\u2019una adak sunarken tasvir edilmekte ve Buhen komutan\u0131 Turo\u2019nun ad\u0131 ge\u00e7mektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Ahmose, Nubia\u2019dan d\u00f6nd\u00fckten sonra iki ayaklanmayla ilgilenmek zorunda kald\u0131. \u0130lki, Aata adl\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 olmayan (muhtemelen Nubyal\u0131) bir ki\u015finin k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir kuvvetle Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a kuzeyden girmesiyle ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7apl\u0131 bir isyand\u0131. Aata, kral\u0131n ordusuyla \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmaya girmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in bu olay ya\u011fma amac\u0131 g\u00fcden bir bask\u0131n olabilir. Aata ve adamlar\u0131 canl\u0131 olarak ele ge\u00e7irildi; \u0130bana\u2019n\u0131n o\u011flu Ahmose\u2019ye \u00f6d\u00fcl olarak iki gen\u00e7 sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 verildi. Aata\u2019n\u0131n Nubyal\u0131 oldu\u011fu varsay\u0131l\u0131rsa ve Kerma Nubyal\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n Avaris ve Memphis\u2019teki ordularda g\u00f6rev ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve zengin definler yapabilecek kadar servete sahip oldu\u011fu g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, kral\u0131n Nubia\u2019da yoklu\u011fundan yararlanarak Yukar\u0131 M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019a ya\u011fma bask\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fczenlemek isteyen bir grubun b\u00f6yle bir giri\u015fimde bulunmas\u0131 olas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          \u0130kinci ayaklanma ise farkl\u0131 bir yap\u0131ya sahipti. Liderli\u011fini bir M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 olan Teti-an \u00fcstlendi; \u201cKar\u015f\u0131tlar\u0131 \u00e7evresine toplad\u0131; majesteleri onu \u00f6ld\u00fcrd\u00fc; birlikleri yok edildi.\u201d \u0130syan\u0131n ciddiyeti, uygulanan cezan\u0131n sertli\u011finden anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Bu kar\u015f\u0131tlar\u0131n, o zamana dek Ahmose\u2019un rakibi olan Avaris kral\u0131na hizmet edenler olmas\u0131 m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Ahmose\u2019un h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n son be\u015f y\u0131l\u0131, b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u00fclt merkezlerinde (Memphis, Karnak, Heliopolis ve en ba\u015fta Abydos) ve M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n kuzey ile g\u00fcney s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131nda (Avaris ve Buhen) y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen b\u00fcy\u00fck in\u015faat projelerine ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki en erken 18. Hanedan tabakalar\u0131, bu \u00f6zel alan ba\u011flam\u0131nda ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc ke\u015fifler sunmu\u015ftur. Ya\u011fmadan hemen sonra, son Hyksos kral\u0131n\u0131n saray\u0131 ve tahkimatlar\u0131 sistematik olarak y\u0131k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ahmose, benzer tahkimatlar ve saray yap\u0131lar\u0131yla yerine yenilerini in\u015fa ettirmi\u015ftir; ancak bu yap\u0131lar da k\u0131sa \u00f6m\u00fcrl\u00fc olmu\u015f, bug\u00fcn sadece temelleri ve duvar resimlerinin bulundu\u011fu at\u0131k y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131 sayesinde yeniden kurgulanabilmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Bu duvar resimleri tarz, teknik ve motif bak\u0131m\u0131ndan Minosludur, ancak bunlar\u0131n ger\u00e7ekten Minoslu sanat\u00e7\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan m\u0131 yoksa onlar\u0131 taklit eden M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan m\u0131 yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 konusunda hen\u00fcz bir fikir birli\u011fi yoktur. Y\u00fczlerce par\u00e7a bulunmu\u015ftur, fakat \u00e7o\u011fu k\u00f6t\u00fc durumdad\u0131r; tam bir de\u011ferlendirme i\u00e7in y\u0131llarca s\u00fcrecek koruma ve inceleme gereklidir. Yine de bu resimlerin, Thebes mezarlar\u0131nda Kretelilere dair ilk tasvirlerden ve Knossos\u2019taki korunmu\u015f fresklerden 100 y\u0131ldan daha eski ba\u011flamlarda yer almas\u0131, M\u0131s\u0131r ile Girit aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkiler hakk\u0131ndaki fikirleri k\u00f6kten de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Bu duvar resimlerinin geldi\u011fi yap\u0131lardan biri kraliyet saray\u0131yd\u0131; zaman\u0131n di\u011fer benzer yap\u0131s\u0131 Deir el-Ballas\u2019taki Kuzey Saray\u0131\u2019d\u0131r. Buradaki az say\u0131daki duvar resmi, olduk\u00e7a farkl\u0131d\u0131r ve d\u00f6nemin mezar resimlerine benzer basit bir tarzda boyanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki freskler, Eski Krall\u0131k\u2019tan beri s\u00fcren geleneksel M\u0131s\u0131r duvar s\u00fcsleme tarzlar\u0131ndan olduk\u00e7a uzakt\u0131r. Knossos freskleriyle benzetildi\u011finde, bu resimlerin rit\u00fcel ama\u00e7la yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olduklar\u0131 ve Girit h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131k k\u00fclt\u00fcne ait sembollerle dolu olduklar\u0131 anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131r. Bo\u011fa atlayanlar ve akrobatlar; bo\u011fa ba\u015f\u0131 ve labirent motifleriyle birlikte tamamen Ege d\u00fcnyas\u0131na ait unsurlard\u0131r. Resimlerin \u00f6l\u00e7ek farklar\u0131, konu \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi ve arka plan renkleri, s\u00fcslemenin \u00e7ok karma\u015f\u0131k oldu\u011funu ve tek bir yap\u0131da de\u011fil, bir dizi binada yer ald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir. Daha az karma\u015f\u0131k ve Minoan tarz\u0131n\u0131 daha a\u00e7\u0131k bi\u00e7imde taklit eden freskler Filistin\u2019deki Tell Kabri\u2019de de bulunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki en \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 \u00f6zellik, fresklerin herhangi bir ba\u011flamda g\u00f6r\u00fcnmemesidir. Bir miktar Kretelilere ait Kamares \u00e7anak \u00e7\u00f6mle\u011fi olsa da bunlar 13. Hanedan\u2019\u0131n erken tabakalar\u0131nda yer al\u0131r ve bu tabakalar ile fresklerin bulundu\u011fu katmanlar aras\u0131nda yap\u0131 ya da eser devaml\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 yoktur. En tuhaf olan\u0131, fresklerin kendileriyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 hi\u00e7bir Girit eserinin bulunmamas\u0131 ve \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131klar\u0131 tabakalarda da bu t\u00fcr eserlerin olmay\u0131\u015f\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Bu fresklerin ke\u015ffi, bug\u00fcne dek g\u00f6z ard\u0131 edilmi\u015f bir fikri yeniden g\u00fcndeme getirmi\u015ftir: Ahmose\u2019un Girit krallar\u0131yla m\u00fcttefik oldu\u011fu ve belki de bir Giritli prensesle evlendi\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesi. Bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc destekleyen kan\u0131tlar aras\u0131nda Ahmose\u2019un baltas\u0131nda bulunan Minoan tarz\u0131 bir griffon fig\u00fcr\u00fc ve annesi Ahhotep\u2019in \u201cHau-nebuf\u2019un han\u0131m\u0131\u201d unvan\u0131 yer al\u0131r. Bu unvan\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta Yunan adalar\u0131na at\u0131fta bulundu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclse de, yak\u0131n zamanda bu yorumun ger\u00e7ek\u00e7i olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Yine de freskler, Minoanlar\u0131n Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019da ger\u00e7ekten var olduklar\u0131n\u0131\u2014ister sanat\u00e7\u0131lar olarak, isterse M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 sanat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131 y\u00f6nlendiren ki\u015filer olarak\u2014kan\u0131tlamaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Fresklerin ortaya koydu\u011fu sorular, ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olarak ba\u015fka bir sorunu g\u00fcndeme getirir: Thera yanarda\u011f\u0131n\u0131n patlama tarihi. Bug\u00fcne dek en iyi korunmu\u015f freskler, lav katmanlar\u0131 alt\u0131nda m\u00fch\u00fcrlenmi\u015f olan Thera adas\u0131ndan (Cyclades) \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu patlama, Ege ile Do\u011fu Akdeniz aras\u0131ndaki kronolojik dizinlerin birbirine ba\u011flanmas\u0131nda ve mutlak tarihlendirme i\u00e7in kilit bir olayd\u0131r. M\u0131s\u0131r kaynaklar\u0131nda bu patlaman\u0131n belirtilerini aramak i\u00e7in \u00e7ok \u00e7aba harcanm\u0131\u015f ve olay\u0131n h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131k y\u0131llar\u0131yla tarihlendirilebilmesi ama\u00e7lanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Rhind Papir\u00fcs\u00fc\u2019ndeki f\u0131rt\u0131na tasvirleri ve Ahmose\u2019un bir y\u0131k\u0131m\u0131 anlatan stelas\u0131 bu tart\u0131\u015fmada \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Ancak \u015fimdiye dek en g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc kan\u0131t Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019dan gelmektedir: yap\u0131lan analizlerde Thera patlamas\u0131ndan kaynakland\u0131\u011f\u0131 belirlenen ponza ta\u015flar\u0131, Amenhotep I d\u00f6neminden III. Tuthmose\u2019un ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131na kadar tarihlenen yerle\u015fim katmanlar\u0131nda bulunmu\u015ftur. Ancak bu ponzalar bir at\u00f6lyede hammadde olarak kullan\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131 i\u00e7in bu ba\u011flam yaln\u0131zca bir \u201c\u00f6n terminus\u201d sunar\u2014\u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc ta\u015f daha \u00f6nce toplanm\u0131\u015f olabilir ve bir s\u00fcre orada yatm\u0131\u015f olabilir. \u00dcstelik b\u00fct\u00fcn ponza ta\u015flar\u0131 Thera\u2019dan gelmemektedir; \u00f6rneklerden en az birinin kayna\u011f\u0131 T\u00fcrkiye\u2019de yakla\u015f\u0131k 100.000 y\u0131l \u00f6nce ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015f bir patlamad\u0131r. Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019n\u0131n daha erken tabakalar\u0131nda ponza ta\u015f\u0131 ve patlamaya ait k\u00fcl kal\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131 (\u201cfallout\u201d) bulunmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Buz \u00e7ekirdekleri ve a\u011fa\u00e7 halkalar\u0131 gibi ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc atmosferik ko\u015fullar\u0131n tarihi olaylarla ili\u015fkilendirilebildi\u011fi veri kaynaklar\u0131na dayanarak, Thera\u2019n\u0131n 1628 M.\u00d6. patlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6nerilmi\u015ftir. Tell el-Dab\u2018a\u2019daki kan\u0131tlar<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

          Orta Krall\u0131k D\u00f6nemi Yeni Krall\u0131k D\u00f6nemi \u0130kinci Ara D\u00f6nem, M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n b\u00f6l\u00fcnmesi ve \u0130ki \u00dclke\u2019nin par\u00e7alanmas\u0131yla tan\u0131mlanan bir d\u00f6nemdir. Thebes Kral\u0131 Kamose (M\u00d6 1555-1550), bu d\u00f6nemin sonunda, Avaris\u2019te bir b\u00fcy\u00fck adam ve Kush\u2019ta bir di\u011ferinin oturdu\u011funu, bir Asyal\u0131 ve bir Nubial\u0131 ile birle\u015fti\u011fini ve her birinin M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n bir par\u00e7as\u0131na sahip oldu\u011funu belirterek durumu ele\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. Bu d\u00f6nemin … <\/p>\n

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Thebes Kral\u0131 Kamose (M\u00d6 1555-1550), bu d\u00f6nemin sonunda, Avaris\u2019te bir b\u00fcy\u00fck adam ve Kush\u2019ta bir di\u011ferinin oturdu\u011funu, bir Asyal\u0131 ve bir Nubial\u0131 ile birle\u015fti\u011fini ve her birinin M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n bir par\u00e7as\u0131na sahip oldu\u011funu belirterek durumu ele\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. 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Thebes Kral\u0131 Kamose (M\u00d6 1555-1550), bu d\u00f6nemin sonunda, Avaris\u2019te bir b\u00fcy\u00fck adam ve Kush\u2019ta bir di\u011ferinin oturdu\u011funu, bir Asyal\u0131 ve bir Nubial\u0131 ile birle\u015fti\u011fini ve her birinin M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n bir par\u00e7as\u0131na sahip oldu\u011funu belirterek durumu ele\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. 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